W  MODERN 
HOT  WATER  HEATING 
STEAM&GASFITTING 


MODERN 

Hot  Water    Heating 
Steam  and  Gas  Fitting 

OVER  ISO  ILLUSTRATIONS 


BY 

WM.  DONALDSON 


CHICAGO 
FREDERICK  J.  DRAKE  &  CO.,  PUBLISHERS 


By  FREDERICK  J.  DRAKE  &  Co. 

CHICAGO 
Copyright,  1918  and  1006 


RELATIVE  ADVANTAGES  OF  STEAM  AND 
HOT  WATER  HEATING. 

The  first  cost  of  a  steam  heating  system  is  from 
20  to  30  per  cent  less  than  that  of  a,  hot  water 
system.  This  is  due  to  the  smaller  sizes  of  pipes 
and  radiators  used  on  steam  work.  The  cost  of 
operation  is  however  in  favor  of  the  hot  water 
system. 

When  steam  radiators  are  shut  off  they  cool 
much  more  rapidly  than  hot  water  radiators. 
This  proves  to  be  an  advantage  in  favor  of  the 
hot  water  system. 

A  steam  plant  requires  much  more  attention 
and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  operator  than  the  hot 
water  system.  With  regard  to  freezing,  the  pref- 
erence is  in  favor  of  steam,  and  in  large  buildings 
this  is  often  a  matter  of  great  importance.  A 
hot  water  system  may  be  run  during  mild  weath- 
er with  much  less  heat  than  a,  steam  system 
which  must  always  be  brought  to  a  temperature 
of  212  degrees  Fahrenheit  before  any  heat  is  felt. 

HEATING  SYSTEMS. 

A  steam  or  water  heating  system  involves  in 
its  construction  the  following: 
A  steam  boiler  or  water  heater. 

7 


3S7473 


8  HEATING  SYSTEMS 

Pipe  and  pipe  fittings. 

Valves. 

Radiators. 

Air  valves. 

It  also  requires  an  expansion  tank  (water  heat- 
ing) for  its  successful  operation. 

A  good  chimney. 

Good  fuel. 

Good  management. 

For  heating  a  house  or  a  small  flat  building  the 
round  sectional  steam  boilers  or  water  heaters  are 
unquestionably  the  best  up  to  1,500  square  feet  of 
radiation. 

For  capacities  above  this  limitation,  rectangu- 
lar sectional  steam  boilers  or  water  heaters  are 
used. 

Ventilation.  Ventilation  is  a  most  important 
matter  in  connection  with  heating.  All  living 
rooms  should  be  ventilated,  and  the  greater  the 
number  of  occupants  the  room  contains,  the  great- 
er should  be  the  amount  of  ventilation  required. 

In  the  ordinary  house,  ventilation  is  obtained 
from  the  fresh  air  entering  the  rooms  through  the 
windows  and  doors,  for  the  ordinary  occupants  of 
the  rooms. 

Under  ordinary  conditions,  an  adult  requires 
about  1,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  hour. 

The  principal  cause  of  the  vitiation  of  the  air 
in  a  room  is  the  respiration  of  the  occupants. 
Moisture  and  gases  arising  from  the  occupants  of 


HEATING  SYSTEMS  9 

the  room  also  tend  to  make  the  air  foul.  Lighting 
and  heating  are  other  causes. 

The  air  in  a  room  is  to  some  extent  changed  by 
diffusion,  but  preferably  by  the  entrance  through 
registers  provided  for  the  purpose,  of  fresh  air 
that  has  been  warmed,  and  by  the  outward  pas- 
sage through  flues,  of  the  foul  air. 

The  foul  air  should  leave  a  room  near  the  floor. 
An  open  fireplace  furnishes  an  excellent  means  of 
ventilating  a  room. 

The  foul  air  is  heavier  than  the  purer  air,  and 
therefore  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  room.  By 
drawing  the  colder  and  therefore  heavier  air, 
which  is  at  the  bottom,  the  warmer  air  at  the  up- 
per part  of  the  room  settles  to  fill  this  space,  thus 
creating  a  circulation,  and  making  the  heating 
more  effective. 

Heat.  In  what  is  known  as  the  molecular  the- 
ory, all  bodies  are  made  up  of  rapidly  vibrating 
particles,  the  hottest  bodies  being  those  whose 
particles  move  or  vibrate  with  the  greatest  rapid- 
ity, and  through  the  greatest  distances.  The  con- 
clusion is  therefore  reached  that  heat  is  not  a 
substance,  but  a  form  of  motion,  and  that  this 
condition  may  be  transferred  from  one  body  to 
another.  This  theory  explains  in  a  simple  man- 
ner the  various  actions  of  heat. 

Upon  being  heated,  the  particles  of  a  body  tend 
to  repel  each  other,  and  as  a  result  of  the  action  of 
the  heat  the  body  expands,  and  this  expansion  if 


10  HEATING  SYSTEMS 

carried  far  enough,  finally  produces  a  change  in 
the  state  of  the  body,  the  point  at  which  such 
change  takes  place  varying  with  each  different 
substance.  As  an  example  of  this  change  a  cake 
of  ice  when  subjected  to  heat,  melts  and  becomes 
water,  and  this  water  when  subjected  to  further 
heat  again  changes  its  state  and  becomes  steam, 

Heat  may  be  transferred  from  one  body  to  an- 
other in  three  ways,  by  conduction,  by  convection 
and  by  radiation. 

By  conduction  is  meant  the  direct  contact  of 
one  body  with  another.  A  heated  bar  of  iron  will 
transmit  heat  to  another  bar  when  in  contact  with 
it. 

Heat  is  also  transferred  from  one  body  to  an- 
other by  convection,  by  means  of  water  or  other 
fluids,  which  convey  it  from  one  point  to  another. 

Heat  is  transferred  from  one  body  to  another  by 
radiation  through  such  a  medium  as  currents  of 
air. 


STEAM  HEATING. 

The  low  pressure  gravity  and  the  high  pressure 
steam  systems  are  the  ones  in  general  use. 

The  chief  feature  of  the  low  pressure  gravity 
system  of  steam  heating  is  that  all  condensation 
turns  to  the  boiler  by  gravity. 

A  pressure  of  steam  below  10  pounds  above  the 
atmospheric  pressure  is  low  pressure  steam. 

The  low  pressure  steam  system  is  chiefly  used 
in  house  heating,  because  it  is  safer  than  high 
pressure  steam,  and  as  it  works  at  a  lower  pres- 
sure is  more  economical  to  use,  and  requires  less 
attention. 

Not  less  than  a  l1/^  inch  pipe  should  be 
used  for  a  steam,  main,  and  this  diameter  should 
not  be  run  for  a  greater  length  than  25  feet. 

Regardless  of  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done, 
no  steam  riser  less  than  1  inch  in  diameter  should 
bfc  used.  . 

If  too  small  the  pipes  will  sometimes  cause  the 
radiators  to  fill  with  water. 

The  steam  main  should  be  run  as  high  as  pos- 
sible above  the  boiler.  A  distance  of  18  inches  or 
more  should  be  allowed  if  conditions  will  permit 
of  it. 

Branches  should  always  be  taken  from  the  top 

11 


12  STEAM  HEATING 

of  the  steam  supply  mains  or  at  an  angle  of  45 
degrees,  but  never  from  the  side. 

Branches  should  not  be  taken  from  the  side  of 
the  main,  as  water  hammering  and  the  forcing  of 
condensed  water  from  the  main  into  the  radiators 
may  be  result. 

Branches  should  be  run  full  size  from  the  main 
to  the  risers  and  connected  with  the  latter  by  a 
reducing  elbow. 

The  horizontal  branch  should  be  one  size  larger 
than  the  riser,  if  more  than  6  or  8  feet  in  length, 
as  the  circulation  is  not  so  strong  on  a  horizontal 
as  on  a  vertical  line  of  pipe. 

A  steam  main  should  have  a  pitch  of  at  least  1 
inch  for  every  10  feet  of  length. 

Branches  should  have  a  pitch  of  at  least  1  inch 
for  each  5  feet. 

Carelessness  in  the  alignment  of  steam  pipes  is 
liable  to  form  pockets  or  traps  which  will  impede 
the  circulation  and  cause  hammering,  due  to  the 
condensed  water  remaining  in  the  pockets. 

When  necessary  to  make  a  direct  rise  in  order 
to  get  over  an  obstruction  or  to  increase  the  head 
room,  the  pocket  formed  should  be  dripped  by  a 
small  pipe  into  the  return. 


STEAM  BOILERS. 

Experience  has  shown  that  steam  boilers  made 
of  cast  iron  are  the  most  reliable  and  most  effi- 
cient for  heating  purposes.  No  other  metals  which 
can  be  used  for  this  purpose  deteriorate  so  little 
from  corrosion  as  cast  iron  under  like  conditions. 
A  cast  iron  steam  boiler  cannot  explode.  Being 
built  up  in  sections  they  are  easy  to  set  up  and 
involve  the  least  amount  of  trouble  and  expense. 
In  operation  they  are  simplicity  itself  and  their 
management  is  easily  understood. 

The  capacity  of  a  steam  boiler  should  be  at  least 
25  per  cent  in  excess  of  the  total  duty  required 
by  the  radiation  and  pipe  system  for  direct  radia- 
tion. When  indirect  radiation  is  used  add  50  per 
cent  to  the  above. 

In  locating  a  steam  boiler,  be  sure  and  ascertain 
by  careful  measurements  that  will  stand  low 
enough  so  that  the  water  line  will  be  18  inches 
or  more  below  the  lowest  point  of  the  steam 
mains. 

The  boiler  should  be  placed  on  a  solid  founda- 
tion and  as  close  as  possible  to  the  flues. 

The  proper  size  of  coal  to  use  in  a  given  size  of 
steam  boiler  is  a  very  important  factor  to  its  suc- 
cessful operation.  As  a  rule  the  best  results  have 
been  obtained  by  the  use  of  range  or  stove  coal  in 

13 


}4  STEAM  BOILERS 

round  boilers  or  heaters.  For  rectangular  steam 
boilers  good  results  have  been  obtained  by  the  use 
of  stove  coal  for  the  smaller  sizes  and  egg  coal  for 
the  larger  ones.  If  bituminous  or  soft  coal  be 


•used  instead  of  anthracite  or  hard  coal,  a  boiler 
a.t  least  one  size  larger  should  be  installed. 

Round  Steam  Boilers.    The  boiler  shown  in  Fig. 
1  is  entirely  of  cast  iron  construction,  so  arranged 


STEAM  BOILERS  15 

as  to  amply  provide  for  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion. The  only  joints  or  connections  are  formed  of 
heavy  cast  iron  threaded  nipples,  making  a  per- 
fect joint,  with  no  possibility  of  leaks  from  any 
cause  whatsoever  and  absolute  freedom  from  all 
necessity  of  packing  of  any  kind.  The  general 
construction  of  both  steam  boilers  is  as  follows: 
The  circular  base,  or  ashpit,  which  also  forms 
the  support  for  the  grate,  is  substantially  made  of 
cast  iron  and  gives  a  safe  depth  for  accumulation 
of  ashes.  Eesting  on  this  is  the  firepot  section, 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  This  section,  being  one  com- 
plete casting  in  itself,  and  tested  under  heavy 
pressure  before  leaving  the  shop,  is  abso- 
lutely free  from  mechanical  imperfections.  In 
the  center  of  the  top  of  this  section  is  a  large 
opening,  threaded  to  receive  a  nipple,  which  con- 
nects it  with  a  closed  section,  shown  in  the  right 
hand  upper  view,  Fig.  2.  This  first,  or  interme- 
diate section,  is  of  less  diameter  than  the  top  of 
the  firepot  section.  On  top  of  this  closed,  or  in- 
termediate section  and  attached  to  it  in  the  same 
manner,  as  described  for  the  connection  of  the 
firepot,  there  is  an  open  section  shown  in  the  right 
hand  upper  view,  Fig.  2,  which  is  of  the  same 
diameter  as  the  top  of  the  firepot  and  entirely  fills 
the  jacket  casings  hereinafter  described.  On  top 
of  this  is  placed  another  closed  section,  and  on 
top  of  this  again  comes  the  top  section,  which  is 
either  the  steam  dome,  forming  the  steam  boiler, 


16 


STEAM  BOILERS 


Fig.  2. 


or  the  upper  water  section,  forming  the  water 
heater,  all  connected  together  in  the  manner  de- 


STEAM  BOILERS  17 

scribed,  with  screw  nipples,  the  top  section,  or 
dome,  having  the  necessary  tappings  for  the  sup- 
ply outlets  for  steam,  or  the  flow  outlets  for  water. 

Casings.  Extending  from  the  outer  edge  of  the 
top  of  the  firepot  section  to  the  top  of  the  upper 
section,  or  dome,  there  are  cast  iron  casings,  close- 
ly fitted  joints.  These  casings  are  made  in  seg- 
ments and  are  interchangeable  and  easily  applied, 
with  no  possibility  of  rusting,  wearing  out  or 
breaking.  They  form  in  themselves  a  perfect 
chamber  for  the  retention  of  products  of  combus- 
tion, compelling  these  to  follow  such  channels  as 
will  give  best  results. 

Firepot.  The  firepot  is  circular  in  form,  entire- 
ly surrounded  by  water,  is  made  in  one  perfect 
casting,  and  free  from  any  possible  chance  of 
leakages.  TJie  inner  surface  of  the  firepot  has 
projecting  into  it  all  around  the  sides  a  multipli- 
city of  iron  points,  just  long  enough  to  prevent 
the  water  contact  from  chilling  the  fire  and  mak- 
ing it  possible  to  secure  perfect  combustion  and  a 
uniform  fire  around  the  edges  asi  well  as  in  the 
center.  The  firepot s  are  of  sufficient  depth  to  in- 
sure a  deep,  slow  fire,  forming  the  best  and  most 
economical  heat-producing  proposition  for  low 
pressure  heating. 

Grate.  The  grate  is  of  the  triangular  form  and 
is  at  all  times  easily  operated,  and  in  its  opera- 
tion it  pulverizes  all  clinkers  before  depositing 
in  ash  pit. 


18 


STEAM  BOILERS 


On  all  the  larger  size  boilers  the  grates  are  fit- 
ted with  a  heavy  bearing  bar  in  the  center,  thus 
prolonging  the  life  of  the  grate  bars,  as  it  pre- 
vents their  warping. 

Simplicity  of  the  Grates.  The  construction  of 
the  grate  is  exceedingly  simple,  and  admits  of  any 
one  bar  of  the  whole  grate  being  changed  without 
the  assistance  of  skilled  labor. 


Fig.   3. 


Fig.  3  shows  a  vertical  cross-section  of  a  steani 
boiler. 


STEAM  BOILERS 


19 


Rectangular  Sectional  Boilers.  The  vertical 
sectional  type  of  steam  boiler  has  been  on  the  mar- 
ket and  in  all  forms  for  a  number  of  years.  There 
are  no  new  ideas  that  can  be  safely  exploited  in 
this  line.  The  demand  is  for  a,  simple,  practical, 
easily  handled  device  that  will  absolutely  endure 
the  work  appropriated  for  it. 


Fig.  4. 


The  boiler  shown  in  Fig.  4  is  strong,  of  good  ap- 
pearance, thoroughly  accessible  for  cleaning,  and, 
so  far  as  can  be  determined  from  exterior  appear- 
ances, a  most  satisfactory  heater.  The  good  opin- 


20 


STEAM  BOILERS 


ion  already  formed  of  the  heater  is  further 
strengthened  by  reference  to  views  of  the  inter- 
mediate and  Tear  sections  shown  in  Figs.  5  and  6. 
"By  reference  to  these  cuts  it  will  be  seen  that 
possible  advantage  is  taken  of  the  fire  sur- 
,  it  being  the  belief  that,  unless  great  good  is 


Fig.  5. 

accomplished  in  direct  contact  with  the  fire,  there 
will  be  but  little  assistance  obtained  from  the 
flues. 

Firepots.  Firepots  of  the  type  of  heaters  are 
deep— to  give  a  compact  body  of  fire,  and,  besides, 
are  covered  with  numbers  of  iron  projections  to 
prevent  chilling  contact  of  the  fire  with  the  ex- 


STEAM  BOILERS 


21 


posed  water  surface  and  yet  secure  such  perfect 
combustion  as  will  quickly  impart  to  the  water 
the  heat  from  the  fuel  and  permit  of  maintaining 
at  all  times  a  clear,  even  fire  in  every  portion  of 
the  firepot. 


INN 

linn 


Pig.  6. 


Boiler  capacity.  THie  capacity  of  the  boiler 
should  be  at  least  20  per  cent  in  excess  of  the  total 
duty  imposed  upon  it  by  the  radiation  and  pipe 
system. 

Example:  Let  600  square  feet  equal  the  total 
radiation,  plus  25  per  cent  for  the  surface  of  the 
mains,  plus  20  per  cent  excess  boiler  capacity, 
which  is  900  square  feet,  the  capacity  of  the  boiler 


22  STEAM  BOILERS 

required.    The  same  result  may  be  arrived  at  by 
adding  50  per  cent  to  the  radiation. 
When  direct-indirect  radiation  is  used,  an  ad- 


Fig.   7. 

ditional  33  1/3  per  cent  must  be  allowed,  and  when 
indirect  radiation  is  used,  add  50  per  cent. 
Example: 

Total  direct  radiation=450    sq.  ft. 

One  direct-indirect  radiator^  60    "  " 

One  indirect  radiator=^90    "  " 

600    "  " 

25  per  cent  for  surface  of  mainst=112.5  "  " 

33  1/3  per  cent  on  direct-indirect=  20    "  " 

50  per  cent  on  indirect  radlator=  45    "  " 

777.5"  " 

20  per  cent  excess  oapaoity=155.5_<  t  " 

Boiler  capacity=933    "  " 


STEAM  BOILERS  23 

Safety  Valves.  While  not  an  absolute  necessi- 
ty, some  form  of  low-pressure  safety  valve  is  gen- 
erally used  on  the  steam  boiler  of  a  low-pressure 
heating  plant.  Forms  of  low-pressure  safety 


Fig.  8. 


valves  are  shown  in  Figs.  7  and  8,  the  one  shown 
in  Fig.  7  is  spring  controlled  and  capable  of  ad- 
justment for  different  pressures,  while  that  shown 
in  Fig.  8  has  a  ball  weight  instead  of  a  spring 


STEAM  BOILERS 


Pig.  0. 


STEAM  BOILERS 


2ft 


Pig.  10. 


26  STEAM  BOILERS 

and  is  consequently  non-adjustable  except  by 
changing  the  weight. 

Water  Column.  Every  steam  boiler  should  be 
equipped  with  a,  water  column  with  water  gauge 
and  try-cocks  as  shown  in  Fig.  9.  A  combina- 
tion water  column  is  shown  in  Fig.  10,  with  steam, 
gauge  on  the  top  of  the  column. 

Damper  Regulator.  While  an  automatic  dam- 
per regulator  is  not  as  essential  to  a  water  heater 
as  to  a  steam  boiler,  it  is  a  very  useful  device,  and 
when  used  prevents  overheating  and  occasions 
great  economy  in  fuel.  An  automatic  regulator 
for  a  steam  boiler  is  shown  in  Fig.  11.  Check  draft 


Fig.   11. 

dampers,  which  are  controlled  by  automatic  regu- 
lators, are  shown  in  Fig.  12. 

The  damper  regulator  consists  of  a  hollow  bowl 
formed  by  two  castings  bolted  together,  with  a 
rubber  diaphragm  between  them,  the  lower  cast- 
ing being  connected  to  the  steam  space  of  the 
boiler  by  means  of  a  short  nipple.  Through  an 
opening  in  the  top  of  the  upper  casting  a  plunger 
works,  and  across  this  plunger  and  connected  to 
an  upright  lip  on  the  edge  of  the  diaphragm  cast- 


STEAM  BOILERS 


27 


ing  is  a  bar,  from  the  ends  of  which  chains  con- 
nect to  the  draft  door  and  check  damper  door  of 
the  boiler. 

As  the  steam  pressure  rises,  the  pressure 
against  the  under  side  of  the  rubber  diaphragm 
is  transmitted  to  the  plunger  which  is  raised, 


thereby  operating  the  rod  or  lever,  and  the  chains 
connecting  with  the  draft  and  check  damper 
doors.  The  sliding  weight  usually  on  the  rod 
may  be  set  so  that  the  leverage  may  be  smaller  or 
greater,  according  to  the  pressure  of  steam  car- 
ried on  the  apparatus,  before  the  operation  of 


28  STEAM  BOILERS 

the  doors  will  take  place.  By  means  of  the  dam- 
per regulator  the  rise  and  fall  of  temperature  in 
the  boiler  may  so  regulate  the  draft  that  an  even 
temperature  may  be  obtained. 

The  chains  should  be  so  set  that  the  draft  door 
and  check  draft  will  each  be  closed  when  the  regu- 
lator lever  is  level,  and  there  is  no  steam  in  the 
boiler. 

Pressure  Gauges.  The  hollow  spring  in  the 
gauge,  shown  in  Fig.  13,  is  so  shaped  and  arranged 


Fig.   13. 


and  the  mechanism  is  such  that  the  vertical  as 
well  as  the  horizontal  movement  of  its  free  ends 
is  fully  utilized.  It  thereby  permits  the  use  of 
springs  100  per  cent  stronger  than  can  be  used  in 
any  other  gauge,  so  preventing  their  settling  un- 
der any  pressure  which  may  be  indicated  upon 
its  dial. 

The  gauge   shown  in  Fig.  14  may  be  used  for 


STEAM  BOILERS  29 

indicating  either  pressure  or  vacuum,  as  the  case 
may  be.  It  is  graduated  for  pressure  in  pounds 
per  square  inch,  and  for  vacuum  in  inches  of  mer~ 
cury  in  column  or  pounds  per  square  inch,  as 
may  be  desired. 


Fig.    14. 

Smoke  Pipes.  Steam  boiler  smoke  pipes  range 
in  size  from  about  8  inches  in  the  smaller  sizes 
to  10  or  12  inches  in  the  larger  ones.  They  are 
generally  made  of  galvanized  iron.  Tlie  pipe 
should  be  carried  to  the  chimney  as  directly  as 
possible,  avoiding  bends,  which  increase  the  re- 
sistance and  diminish  the  draft.  When  the  draft 
is  known  to  be  good  the  smoke  pipe  may  pur- 
posely be  made  longer  to  allow  the  gases  to  part 
with  more  of  their  heat  before  reaching  the  chim- 


30  STEAM  BOILERS 

ney.  "Where  a  smoke  pipe  passes  through  a  parti- 
tion it  should  be  protected  by  a  double  perforated 
metal  collar  at  least  6  inches  greater  in  diameter 
than  the  pipe. 

The  top  of  the  smoke  pipe  should  not  be  placed 
within  8  inches  of  exposed  beams  nor  less  than  6 
inches  under  beams  protected  by  asbestos  or  plas- 
ter. The  connection  between  the  smoke  pipes  and 
the  chimney  frequently  becomes  loose,  allowing 
cold  air  to  be  drawn  in,  thus  diminishing  the 
draft.  A  collar  to  make  the  connection  tight 
should  be  riveted  to  the  pipe  about  5  inches  from 
the  end,  to  prevent  its  being  pushed  too  far  into 
the  flue. 

Chimney  Flues.  Flues,  if  built  of  brick,  should 
have  walls  8  inches  in  thickness,  unless  terra  eotta 
linings  are  used,  when  only  4  inches  of  brick  work 
is  required.  Except  in  small  houses,  where  an 
8x8  flue  may  be  used,  *the  nominal  size  of  the 
smoke  flue  should  be  at  least  8x12,  to  allow  a 
margin  for  possible  contractions  at  offsets,  or  for 
a  thick  coating  of  mortar.  A  clean  out  door  should 
be  placed  at  the  bottom.  A  square  flue  cannot  be 
reckoned  at  its  full  area,  as  the  corners  are  of  lit- 
tle value.  An  8x8  flue  is  practically  very  little 
more  effective  than  one  of  circular  form  8  inches 
in  diameter.  To  avoid  down  drafts  the  top  of 
the  chimney  should  be  carried  above  the  highest 
point  of  the  roof,  unless  provided  with  a  suitable 
top  or  hood. 


- 


STEAM  BOILERS 


31 


Dimensions  of  Chimney  Flues  for  Given  Amounts  of  Direct 
Steam  Radiation 


Square  Feet  of 
Steam  Radiation 

Diameter  of 
Round  Flue 

Square  or 
Rectangular  Flue 

250 

8  inches 

8  in.  x    8  in. 

300 

8  inches 

8  in.  x    8  in. 

400 

8  inches 

8  in.  x    8  in. 

500 

10  inches 

8  in.  x  12  in. 

600 

10  inches 

8  in.  x  12  in. 

700 

10  inches 

8  in.  x  12  in. 

800 

12  inches 

12  in.  x  12  in. 

900 

12  inches 

12  in.  x  12  in. 

1000 

12  inches 

12  in.  x  12  in. 

1200 

12  inches 

12  in.  x  12  in. 

1400 

14  inches 

12  in.  x  16  in. 

1600 

14  inchas 

12  in.  x  16  in. 

1800 

14  inches 

12  in.  x  16  in. 

2000 

14  inches 

12  in.  x  16  in. 

2200 

16  inches 

16  in.  x  16  in. 

3000 

16  inches 

16  in.  x  16  in. 

3500 

18  inches 

16  in.  x  20  in. 

5000 

18  inches 

16  in.,  x  20  in. 

Fuel  Combustion.  Combustion  is  one  form  of 
chemical  action,  accompanied  by  the  generation 
of  heat.  When  such  action  takes  place  slowly  the 
heat  produced  is  almost  imperceptible,  but  when 
it  takes  place  rapidly,  as  in  the  burning  of  wood, 
coal,  etc.,  the  heat  becomes  intense.  In  the  burn- 
ing of  ordinary  fuel,  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of 
the  coal  combine  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and 
produce  combustion,  without  which  no  material 
results  may  be  obtained  from  the  fuel. 

Combustion  depends  upon  the  presence  of  oxy- 
gen, without  which  it  cannot  take  place. 


32  STEAM  BOILERS 

Combustion  is  estimated  by  the  number  of 
ptfunds  of  fuel  consumed  per  hour  by  one  square 
foot  of  grate  surface. 

One  square  foot  of  grate  will  consume  about  5 
pounds  of  hard  coal  per  hour,  or  about  10  pounds 
of  soft  coal,  under  a  natural  draft. 

For  7l/2  to  10  pounds  of  coal  consumed,  one 
cubic  foot  of  water  will  be  evaporated. 

A  fire  of  a  depth  of  12  inches  will  do  more  ef- 
ficient work  than  one  of  less  depth. 

The  use  of  too  large  coal  is  attended  with  large 
air  spaces  between  the  pieces,  and  this  large 
amount  of  air  is  too  great  for  the  gases  escaping 
from  the  combustion  of  the  coal,  allowing  the 
gases  to  escape  into  the  chimney  flue  unburned. 

The  use  of  too  small  coal  is  not  advisable,  as  it 
packs  down  so  compactly  a,s  to  prevent  the  admis- 
sion of  the  proper  amount  of  air  through  the  grate 
to  produce  good  combustion. 


Pipe  Systems.  The  three  systems  of  heating 
described:  The  direct,  indirect  and  direct-indi- 
rect radiation,  are  governed  by  the  same  rules  in 
the  matter  of  piping  and  steam  supply,  requiring 
only  special  rules  for  proportioning  the  amount 
of  heating  surface  and  for  the  arrangement  of  air 
supply.  There  are  the  one-pipe  and  two-pipe  sys- 
tems, with  several  forms  and  combinations  of  each, 
and  for  the  steam  supply  there  are  high  and  low- 
pressure  systems,  exhaust  systems,  gravity  sys- 
tems and  vacuum  systems. 

The  essentials  of  a  heating  system  are:  A  source 
of  steam  supply,  a  system  of  piping  to  conduct  the 
steam  from  the  source  of  supply  to  the  radiators, 
a  series  of  radiators  or  radiating  surfaces,  a  sys- 
tem of  return  pipes  through  which  the  condensed 
water  from  the  radiators  may  be  removed. 

It  may  be  more  briefly  stated  that  the  prime  re- 
quisites for  a  steam  heating  system  are:  The 
source  of  steam  supply,  the  radiating  surface  and 
a  system  of  pipes  connecting  them.  Should,  how- 
ever, the  supply  and  return  pipes  be  embodied  in 
the  same  system,  it  is  just  as  important  to  arrange 
to  dispose  of  the  condensed  water  as  it  is  to  supply 
steam  to  the  radiators. 

One-pipe  System.  The  simplest  form  of  steam 
heating  system  is  known  as  the  one-pipe  gravity 
return  system.  The  steam  is  generated  in 

33 


34  STEAM  BOILERS 

boiler,  flows  through  the  pipes  to  the  radiators, 
the  condensed  water  as  it  is  formed  in  the  radia- 
tors draining  out  along  the  bottom  of  the  pipes 
and  back  to  the  boiler  by  gravity,  to  be  re-evapor- 


Pig.   15. 

ated  into  steam.  This  system  may  be  used  only  in 
a  very  small  plant,  and  one  in  which  the  pipes 
should  be  made  of  large  size  and  given  a  very  de<- 
cided  pitch  toward  the  boiler. 

One-pipe  System  With  Separate  Return.    In 
the  system  shown  in  Fig.  15  the  main  in  the  base- 


STEAM  BOILERS  35 

ment  is  pitched  so  as  to  drain  away  from  the 
boiler,  and  at  its  end  a  return  pipe  is  connected 
and  led  back  to  the  boiler,  entering  it  below  the 
water-line.  In  this  manner  the  flow  of  the  steam 
and  the  water  of  condensation  is  in  the  same  di- 
rection in  the  mains,  and  upon  the  sudden  conden- 
sation of  steam,  as  occurs  when  turning  steam  into 
a  cold  radiator,  the  water  falls  down  the  risers 
against  the  current  of  steam,  while  in  the  main  it 
is  forced  along  in  the  same  direction  as  the  steam. 
If  the  mains  are  extensive  they  may  be  drained 
at  different  points.  This  system  is  extensively 
used  for  residences  and  buildings  of  only  a  few 
stories  in  height,  and  it  has  also  been  used  in  larger 
installations.  In  such  a  plant  the  risers  as  well 
as  the  mains  must  be  of  ample  size,  and  the  latter 
must  have  sufficient  pitch  and  be  thoroughly 
drained. 

One-pipe  Overhead  System.  This  is  the  only 
system  of  single-pipe  connection  which  is  exten- 
sively used  in  high  buildings,  such  as  the  modern 
office  building,  and  is  shown  in  Fig.  16.  In  this 
system  the  steam  is  conducted  through  a  large 
main  supply  pipe  to  the  attic  of  the  building,  or 
to  the  ceiling  of  the  top  floor,  and  from  this  the 
mains  extend  around  the  building  to  supply  the 
risers.  The  risers  are  connected  with  the  return 
mains  in  the  basement.  In  this  system  the  flow  of 
steam  and  condensed  water  is  everywhere  in  the 
same  direction  except  in  the  connections  to  the 


36 


STEAM  BOILERS 


Fig.   16. 


radiators,  and  the  risers  should  be  so  arranged 
that    these    connections    may    be    comparatively 


STEAM  BOILEES  37 

short.  This  system  has  the  very  decided  advan- 
tage over  the  ordinary  onerpipe  system  that  the 
condensed  water  which  falls  down  the  risers  from 
the  radiators  does  not,  when  it  reaches  the  hori- 
zontal pipe  at  the  bottom  come  into  contact  with 
the  main  current  of  steam,  as  the  horizontal  pipe 
is  only  a  drain  in  which  there  isi  practically  no 
steain  and  which  is  intended  solely  for  the  pur- 
pose of  draining  of  the  condensed  water. 

Two-pipe  System.  The  two-pipe  system  is  il- 
lustrated in  Fig.  17  is  much  the  same  in  all  cases, 
but  special  adaptations  of  it  are  sometimes  made 
to  meet  special  conditions.  There  is  a  two-pipe 
overhead  system  in  which  steam  mains  are  in  the 
attic  as  well  as  in  the  one-pipe  overhead,  but  there 
a  separate  set  of  return  risers  are  provided  which 
connect  with  the  return  in  the  basement.  This 
system  has  been  very  little  used. 

The  One-pipe  Circuit  Steam  Heating  System. 
In  this  system  the  steam  pipe  is  run  from  the 
boiler  vertically  .to  the  ceiling  of  the  basement, 
from  which  point  it  pitches  downward  throughout 
its  course  around  the  cellar  or  basement,  to  a 
point  at  or  near  the  rear  of  the  boiler,  where  an 
automatic  air  vent  is  placed,  and  drop  made  with 
a  pipe  into  the  return  opening  of  the  boiler. 

The  one-pipe  circuit  system  is  used  in  buildings 
which  are  square  or  rectangular  in  shape. 

When  the  building  is  of  such  shape  that  a  one- 
pipe  circuit  will  not  do  the  work  to  advantage, 


38  STEAM  BOILERS 

that  is  to  say,  in  long  buildings,  where  the  boiler 
is  set  at  or  about  the  middle  of  the  building,  it  is 
then  desirable  to  run  a  loop  in  either  direction. 


Fig.    17. 

The  Overhead  Steam  Heating  System.    In  this 
system  the  feed  pipe  is  carried  vertically  to  the 


STEAM  BOILERS  3f 

ceiling  of  the  top  floor,  or  into  the  attic,  and  from 
this  point  branches  are  carried  down  to  the  differ- 
ent radiators. 

This  system  is  used  in  office  buildings,  school 
houses,  factories,  and  often  in  residences,  when  a 
main  can  be  carried  up  into  an  attic.  Frequently, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  a  basement  under  the 
building,  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  overhead  sys- 
tem to  heat  the  radiators. 

The  return  pipes-  should  enter  the  top  of  the 
flow  end  of  the  radiator,  and  return  out  of  the  bot- 
tom of  the  return  end. 

Some  radiators  on  the  one-pipe  system  may  be 
connected  as  single  pipe.  Eadiators  on  the  over- 
head system  may  also  be  connected  as  on  a  one- 
pipe  circuit  system.  Where  this  is  done,  the  con- 
densed water  from  the  radiator  returns  into  the 
drop  or  feed  pipe. 

Heating  Surface.  To  estimate  the  amount  of 
heating  surface  required  to  heat  a  room  with  steam 
to  a  temperature  of  70  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  zero 
weather  with  a  steam  pressure  of  from  2  to  3 
pounds  and  ordinary  conditions  of  exposure,  the 
following  rule  is  given,  which  is  for  direct  radia,- 
tion,  and  based  upon  the  glass  surface,  exposed 
wall  surface  and  cubic  space: 

1  square  foot  of  radiation  to  3  square  feet  of 
glass. 

1  square  foot  of  radiation  to  10  square  feet  of 
wall  exposed. 


40  STEAM  BOILERS 

1  square  foot  of  radiation  to  150  cubic  feet  of 
space. 

For  each  degree  of  temperature  above  or  below 
zero,  deduct  from  or  add  to  1%  per  cent  of  the 
radiation  given  by  the  above  rule. 

Example:  Eequired  the  number  of  square  feet 
of  direct  radiation  for  a  room  10x10x10  feet,  hav- 
ing two  exposed  sides  and  two  windows  2^2x6 
feet. 

Answer: 

Glass  surface=     30  sq.  ft.-f-    3=10  sq.  ft. 

Exposed  walls=:   200  "     "-5-  10—20  "     " 

Cubic  space=l,000  cu.  "-4-150=  6.6  "     " 

Total  direct  radiation=36.6  sq.  ft. 

Example:  Eequired  the  number  of  square  feet 
of  direct  radiation  for  the  same  room,  with  one  ex- 
posed side  and  one  window  2x/2x6  feet: 

Answer: 

Glass  surface=     15  sq.  ft. —    3=  5     sq.  ft. 
Exposed  wallst=   100  "     "  —  10=10     "     " 


Cubic  space=l,000  cu. 


-150=  6.6 


< . 


Total  direct  radiation=21.6  sq.  ft. 

When  indirect  radiation  is  used,  50  per  cent 
should  be  added  to  the  above  figures. 

Reducing  Size  of  Steam  Mains.  The  proper 
reductions  in  the  size  of  pipe  depend  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  work  to  which  the  pipe  is  put. 

It  is  customary  to  rduce  the  size  of  mains  by 


STEAM  BOILERS 


41 


using  reducing  fittings  tapped  eccentric,  or  by 
using  a  reducing  coupling  tapped  eccentric,  the 
idea  being  to  have  a  continuous  fall  of  pipe  with- 
out the  formation  of  traps  or  obstructions  for  hold- 
ing water  at  the  points  where  reductions  are  made. 
It  is  customary  to  reduce  the  size  of  pipes  for 
risers  or  radiator  connections  by  using  a  reducing 
ell  on  the  branch  under  the  floor. 

Eccentric  fittings  are  so  tapped  as  to  bring  the 
bottoms  of  the  openings  of  different  sizes  at  the 
same  level  on  the  fitting.  When  these  fittings  are 
used  they  allow  a  continuous  fall  of  pipe  without 
forming  pockets  for  holding  water  at  the  points 
where  reduction  in  size  is  made.  .This,  is  of  ma- 
terial benefit  to  a  heating  system. 

Steam  Mains.  The  proper  size  of  steam  mains 
for  one  and  two-pipe  systems  are  given  in  the  ac- 
companying tables: 


Proper  Size  of  Steam  Mains: 

ONE  PIPE  SYSTEM 

Pipe  Size  in 
Inches 

2 

2K 

3         yA 

4 

VA 

5 

6 

Sq.  feet  of 
Radiation 

200 
to 
350 

350 
to 
500 

500 
to 
750 

750 
to 
1000 

1000 
to 
1500 

1500 
to 
1800 

1800 
to 
2200 

2200 
to 
3000 

TWO  PIPE  SYSTEM 

Pipe  Size  in 
Inches 

2 

2K 

3 

V4 

4 

4K 

5 

6 

Sq.  feet  of 
Radiation 

500 

750 

1000 

1500 

2000 

2500 

3000 

4000 

RADIATION. 

Direct  Radiation.  This  consists  of  a  heating 
surface  in  the  form  of  a  radiator  or  coil,  which  is 
placed  directly  in  the  room  to  be  heated. 

Indirect  Radiation.  Badiators  in  the  room  to 
be  heated  on  the  first  or  second  floor  are  located 
in  the  cellar  or  basement,  usually  directly  under 
the  rooms  to  be  heated.  There  is  placed  in  the 
floor  of  the  room  to  be  heated,  or  in  the  side  wall 
above  the  baseboard,  a  register  and  connection  is 
made  between  this  register  and  the  radiator  in 
the  basement  by  means  of  tin  or  sheet  iron  pipe, 
for  conveying  the  heated  air  Into  the  room. 

The  indirect  radiator  is  placed  in  a  chamber 
into  which  fresh  air  is  conveyed  from  outside,  and 
to  which  the  hot  air  flue  to  the  register  is  con- 
nected. 

The  distance  from  the  top  of  the  radiator  to 
the  ceiling  of  the  casing  should  be  from  10  to  12 
inches  and  from  the  bottom  of  the  .radiator  to  the 
bottom  of  the  casing  from  6  to  8  inches.  The  di- 
mensions of  the  cold  air  inlet  should  be  1%  square 
inches  for  each  square  foot  of  indirect  radiation. 
The  warm  air  outlet  should  be  2  square  inches  for 
each  square  foot  of  indirect  radiation,  which  would 
be  for  a  radiator  containing  100  square  feet  of 

42 


RADIATION  43 

radiation,  200  square  inches  of  cross  sectional  area, 
or  a  duct  10x20  inches.  The  dimensions  of  the 
warm  air  register  should  be  50  per  cent  larger 
than  those  of  the  warm  air  duct,  which  allows  for 
the  contracted  area  caused  by  the  register  face.  A 
warm  air  duct  having  200  square  inches  of  cross 
sectional  area  should  have  a  register  approxi- 
mating 300  square  inches. 

Direct-Indirect  Radiation.  This  system  serves 
a  double  purpose,  that  of  Direct  Radiation  and 
Ventilation,  and  is  also  placed  in  the  room  to  be 
heated  under  windows,  or  close  to  the  exposed 
walls. 

The  lower  front  part  of  the  radiator  is  encased, 
having  an.  opening  at  the  bottom  or  back  of  the 
base  for  the  introduction  of  cold  air  by  means  of  a 
duct  through  the  outside  wall  of  the  building. 

On  account  of  the  cooling  effect  of  the  outside 
air  passage  between  the  coils  of  the  radiator,  in- 
creased heating  surface  to  the  amount  of  33  1/3 
per  cent  must  be  added  tot  make  it  equivalent  to 
direct  radiation. 

This  system  of  radiation  is  seldom  used  in  the 
heating  of  houses,  being  more  necessary  where 
ventilation  is  required  in  'the  heating  of  public 
buildings  and  schools. 

Instead  of  placing  all  of  the  radiators  at  one 
point,  it  is -well  to  divide  it  into  two  or  more  radi- 
ators, according  to  the  size  of  the  room.  As  heat- 
ing with  steam  or  hot  water  is  accomplished  by  the 


44  RADIATION 

turning  or  circulation  of  the  air  in  the  room,  it  is 
well  to  divide  and  place  the  radiation  at  the  most 
exposed  points,  in  order  to  better  heat  the  room. 

In  small  houses  a  radiator  placed  in  the  lower 
hall,  if  sufficiently  large,  will  heat  the  hall  above, 
but  in  large  buildings,  where  the  hall  space  is 
large,  the  upper  halls  should  have  radiators  placed 
in  them. 

A  properly  installed  steam  heating  plant  should 
be  noiseless  in  operation  and  heat  the  rooms  to  70 
degrees  in  zero  weather  on  from  2  to  3  pounds 
steam  pressure,  and  show  a  circulation  of  steam 
throughout  the  system  on  a  pressure  of  1  pound,  as 
indicated  by  the  steam  gauge. 

A  noiseless  circulation  in  all  radiators  on  a 
pound  of  steam  or  less  indicates  that  the  pipe  sys- 
tem is  of  proper  size  and  properly  pitched,  thereby 
avoiding  low  places,  causing  water  pockets  or 
traps.  The  proper  heating  of  the  rooms  in  which 
the  radiation  is  placed  on  from  1  to  3  pounds  steam 
pressure  indicates  that  the  heating  surface  or 
radiation  is  sufficient. 

Radiators.  Heating  surfaces  are  divided  into 
three  classes:  Direct  radiation,  Indirect  radia- 
tion and  Direct-indirect  radiation. 

Direct  radiation  covers  all  radiators  placed 
within  a  room  or  building  to  warm  the  air,  and 
are  not  connected  with  a  system  of  ventilation. 

The  best  place  within  a  room  to  place  a  single 
radiator,  is  where  the  air  is  cooled,  before  or  under 


RADIATION  45 

the  windows,  or  on  the  outside  walls.  When  the 
radiator  is  of  vertical  tube,  or  a  short  coil,  which 
can  occupy  only  the  space  under  one  window,  and 
when,  as  often  occurs,  there  are  three  windows, 
the  riser  should  be  so  placed  as  to  bring  the  line 
of  radiators  in  front  of,  and  under  the  windows 
where  they  will  do  the  most  good.  When  a  small 
extra  cost  is  not  considered,  to  use  two  radiators 
and  place  one  in  front  of  each  of  the  extreme  win- 
dows. 

When  the  room  is  large  and  has  many  windows, 
the  heating  surface,  when  composed  of  radiators, 
should  be  divided  into  as  many  units  as  possible. 

Indirect  radiation  embraces  all  heating  surfaces 
placed  outside  the  rooms  to  be  heated,  and  can 
only  be  used  in  connection  with  some  system  of 
ventilation. 

All  the  heating  surface  is  placed  in  a  chamber, 
and  the  warmed  air  distributed  through  air  ducts. 

Figs.  18,  19  and  20  show  two,  three  and  four 
column  forms  of  direct  radiators,  and  Fig.  21  a 
two-piece  hall  or  window  direct  radiator. 

The  indirect  radiator  is  usually  boxed,  either  in 
wood  lined  with  tin,  or  in  galvanized  iron.  The 
former  is  best  when  the  basement  is  to  be  kept 
cool,  as  there  is  a  greater  loss  by  radiation  through 
metal  cases,  otherwise  the  sheet  metal  is  the  best, 
as  it  will  not  crack. 

Indirect  radiators  are  usually  hung  from  the 
ceiling  in  the  basement  under  the  rooms  they  are 


46  RADIATION 

intended  to  heat.    A  cold  air  duct  is  carried  from 
an  opening  in  the  outside  wall  to  the  stack  box. 


Fig.   18. 


This  duct  must  be  provided  with  a  damper,  and  its 
inlet  covered  on  the  face  of  the  outside  of  the  wall 
with  a  wire  screen  of  small  mesh. 


RADIATION 


II 


Fig.   19. 


4*5 


BADIATION 


The  box  inclosing  the  radiator  shown  in  Figs, 
22  and  23  is  made  of  wood  lined  with  bright  tin 
about  half-way  down.  The  sides  of  the  box  should 


Fig.  20. 


almost  touch  the  hubs  of  the  radiator  on  both  ends, 
so  that  the  cold  air  coming  in  through  the  duet 
will  surely  find  its  way  up  between  the  sections  of 
the  radiator,  and  not  around  the  ends  of  it. 


BADIATION 


Fig.  21. 


Fig.   22. 


50 


RADIATION 


Fig.   23. 


RADIATION  51 

The  radiator  is  shown  connected  for  a  two-pipe 
steam  system. 

The  cold  air  duct  is  provided  with  a  slide,  so 
that  the  air  may  be  shut  off  when  it  is  not  wanted, 
or  when  the  radiator  is  turned  off.  The  radiator 


Fig.   24. 


should  be  so  hung  in  the  box  that  the  space  above 
it  is  about  one-third  more  than  the  space  below; 
this  provides  for  the  expansion  of  the  air  after  it 
has  been  warmed  by  contact  with  the  radiator. 

Brackets    for    supporting  the  hall  or  window 
types  of  direct  radiator  are  shown  in  Fig.  24. 


52  RADIATION 

A  direct-indirect  form  of  radiator  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  25,  in  which  the  air  is  taken  from  the  out- 
side of  the  room  to  be  heated  and  passes  up  be- 
tween the  sections  of  the  radiator  as  shown,  the 
front  of  the  radiator  being  encased 


Fig.  25. 


RADIATION 


53 


Two  COLUMN  RADIATOR  FOR  STEAM  OR  HOT 

WATER  HEATING. 

No.  of 
Sec- 
tions. 

Length 
in 
Inches. 

SQUARE  FEET  OF  HEATING  SURFACE. 

45 
Inches 
High. 

38 
Inches 
High. 

32 
Inches 
High. 

26 
Inches 
High. 

23 
Inches 
High. 

20 
Inches 
High. 

2 

5 

10 

8 

6! 

5^ 

4% 

4 

3 

7% 

15 

12 

10 

8 

7 

6 

4 

10 

20 

16 

18* 

10! 

9% 

8 

5 

12% 

25 

20 

16! 

13| 

11% 

10 

6 

15 

30 

24 

20 

16 

14 

12 

7 

17% 

35 

28 

23| 

18! 

16% 

14 

8 

20 

40 

32 

26| 

21| 

18% 

16 

9 

22% 

45 

36 

30 

24 

21 

18 

10 

25 

50 

40 

33^ 

26| 

23% 

20 

11 

27% 

55 

44 

36| 

291 

25% 

22 

12 

30 

60 

48 

40 

32 

28 

24 

13 

82% 

65 

52 

43^ 

34! 

30% 

26 

14 

Go 

70 

56 

46| 

37| 

32% 

28 

15 

37% 

75 

60 

50 

40 

35 

30 

16 

40 

80 

64 

53i 

42! 

37% 

32 

17 

42% 

85 

68 

56f 

45^ 

39% 

34 

18 

45 

90 

72 

60 

48 

42 

36 

19 

47% 

95 

76 

63i 

50! 

44% 

38 

20 

50 

100 

80 

66! 

53^ 

46% 

40 

54 


RADIATION 


THREE-COLUMN  RADIATOR  FOR  STEAM  OR  HOT 
WATER  HEATING. 

Number  of 
Sections. 

Length  in 
Inches. 

SQUARE  FEET  OF  HEATING  SURFACE. 

Inches 
High. 

33 
Inches. 
High. 

10  1-2 

27 
Inches 
High. 

21 
Inches 
High. 

2 

5 

12 

8  1-2 

6  1-2 

3 

7  1-2 

18 

153-4 

123-4 

93-4 

4 

10 

24 

21 

17 

13 

5 

12  1-2 

30 

26  1-4 

21  1-4 

16  1-4 

6 

15 

36 

31  1-2 

25  1-2 

19  1-2 

7 

171-2 

42 

363-4 

293-8 

223-4 

8 

20 

48 

42 

34 

26 

9 

22  1-2 

54 

47  1-4 

38  1-4 

29  1-4 

10 

25 

60 

521-2 

42.1-2 

32  1-2 

11 

27  1-2 

66 

573-4 

463-4 

353-4 

12 

30 

72 

63 

51 

39 

13 
14 

32  1-2 
35 

.78 
84 

68  1-4 
73  1-2 

55  1-4 

59  1-2 

42  1-4 
45  1-2 

15 

37  1-2 

90 

783-4 

633-4 

483-4 

16 

40 

96 

84 

68 

52 

17 

42  1-2 

102 

89  1-4 

72  1-4 

55  1-4 

18 

45 

108 

94  1-2 

76  1-2 

58  1-2 

19 

47  1-2 

114 

993-4 

803-4 

613-4 

20 

50 

120 

105 

85 

65 

RADIATION 


55 


FOUR-COLUMN  RADIATOR  FOR  STEAM  OR  HOT 

WATER  HEATING. 

Number 
of 
Sections. 

Length 
in 
Inches. 

SQUARE  FEET  OF  HEATING  SURFACE. 

42  1-2 
Inches 
High. 

38  1-2 
Inches 
High-. 

32  1-2 
Inches 
High. 

26  1-2 
Inches 
High. 

10   2-3 

20  1-2 
Inches 
High. 

2 

8  1-2 

19    1-3            16 

13  1-3 

8 

3 

12  1-2 

29 

24 

20 

16 

12 

4 
5 

16  1-2 
203-4 

38  2-3 
48  1-3 

32 

40 

26  2-3 
33  1-3 

21  1-3 
26  2-3 

16 
20 

6 

243-4 

58 

48 

40 

32 

24 

7 

283-4 

67  3-3 

56 

46  2-3 

37  1-3 

28 

8 

323-4 

77  1-3 

64 

53  1-3 

42  2-3 

32 

9 

37 

87 

72 

60 

48 

36 

10 

41 

96  2-3 

80 

66  2-3 

53  1-3 

40 

11 

45 

106  1-3 

88 

73  1-3 

58  2-3 

44 

12 

49 

116 

96 

80 

64 

48 

13 

53 

125  2-3 

104 

86  2-3 

69  1-3 

52 

14 

57  1-2 

135  1-3 

112 

93  1-3 

74  2-3 

56 

15 

61  1-2 

145 

120 

100 

80 

60 

16 

65  1-2 

154  2-3 

128 

106  2-3 

85  1-3 

64 

17 

69  1-2 

164  1-3 

136 

113  1-3 

90  2-3 

68 

18 

733-4 

172 

144 

120 

96 

72 

19 

773-4 

183  2-3 

152 

126  2-3 

101  1-3 

76 

20 

82 

193  1-3 

160  * 

133  1-3 

106  2-3 

80 

56 


RADIATION 


Radiator  Connections.  Methods  of  connecting 
radiators  used  in  steam  heating  plants  are  shown 
in  Figs.  26  and  27. 


(HH1 

I.E. 

J    I  fr 

f    I 

.1    <O 

Fig.   26. 


They  should  be  made  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
allow  for  expansion  and  contraction  in  the  branch 


Fig.  27. 


supply  to  the  radiator.  This  provision  is  shown 
in  the  illustrations  of  radiator  connections  shown 
in  Figs.  26  and  27. 


RADIATION 


57 


When  the  overhead  system  is  used,  the  radiators 
may  be  fed  at  the  top  of  one  end,  and  the  return 
taken  out  of  the  bottom  of  the  same  or  opposite 
end. 

The  circulation  of  water  in  either  case  is  posi- 
tive. 

All  radiator  connections  should  be  of  sufficient 
area  to  give  the  best  results. 


Pipe  Tap  for  Radiator  Connections 

ONE  PIPE  SYSTEM 

Square  Feet  of  Radiation 

Size  of  Pipe  Tap  in  Inches 

20 
25  to  50 
50  to  75 
75  to  100 

1 

IX 

2 

TWO  PIPE  SYSTEM-TWO  TAPPINGS 

20 
25  to  50 
50  to  75 
75  to  150 

few 

Air  Valves.  Automatic  air  valves  have  almost 
entirely  superseded  the  use  of  hand  operated  air 
cocks.  They  are  made  with  a  composition  disc, 
which  is  arranged  to  close  the  valve  as  soon  as  the 
hot  steam  comes  in  contact  with  it.  They  are  pro- 


58 


RADIATION 


vided  with  a  screw  attachment  by  which  the  valve 
opening  can  be  adjusted  after  the  valves  are  in 
place.  The  only  disadvantage  of  the  automatic  aii 
valve  is  that  when  steam  is  turned  on,  the  entire 
radiator  becomes  heated.  By  means  of  the  plain 
air  cock  the  amount  of  the  radiator  heated  can  be 
regulated,  especially  when  connected  on  a  one-pipe 
system.  The  automatic  air  valve  takes  the  Circu- 
lation in  the  radiator  entirely  out  of  the  hands  of 
persons  who  are  not  acquainted  with  their  prin- 
ciples, and  in  the  case  of  indirect  radiators  is  an 
absolute  necessity. 


Fig.    28. 

Fig.  28  shows  three  forms  of  automatic  air 
valves,  and  Figs.  29  and  30  four  styles  of  hand 
operated  air  cocks. 

Valves.  Straightaway  valves,  commonly  called 
quick-opening  radiator  valves,  are  best  adapted 
fo  this  work.  Only  one  valve  is  used  on  a  hot 
water  radiator  which  is  located  in  the  supply  pipe, 
as  close  to  the  radiator  as  possible.  One  valve  is 


BADIATION 


59 


used  on  a  one-pipe  steam  system,  and  two  on  the 
two-pipe  system.  Valves  should  be  used  which 
have  removable  discs,  such  as  the  Jenkins  disc 
valve.  On  one-pipe  work  the  radiator  valve  should 
be  placed  on  the  flow  pipe,  and  on  two-pipe  work 
on  both  flow  and  return  pipes.  To  shut  off  a  steam 
radiator  the  valve  on  the  return  should  be  closed 


Fig.  29. 


first,  the  supply  valve  last,  and  in  all  cases  both 
valves  should  be  entirely  closed  or  entirely  open. 
To  turn  on  a  steam  radiator  the  supply  valve 
should  be  opened  first,  then  the  valve  on  the  re- 
turn. The  valves  should  be  connected  to  close 
against  the  steam  pressure,  in  order  that  the  stuff- 
ing boxes  may  be  packed  or  repacked  while  the 


60 


RADIATION 


heating  system  is  in  operation.  Gate  valves  should 
be  used  in  the  mains  and  risers  for  the  reason  that 
they  have  a  full  opening  and  do  not  impede  the 
circulation. 

Radiator  Valves.  The  most  commonly  used 
form  of  radiator  valve  is  the  angle  valve,  with  or 
without  union  connection,  and  with  composition 


Pig.   30. 


disc,  wood  wheel,  rough  body  and  nickel  trim- 
mings, as  shown  in  Figs.  31  and  32. 

Gate  valves  as  shown  in  Fig.  33  are  sometimes 
used  when  the  radiator  connections  require  them, 
especially  on  a  down  or  overhead  system  of  piping. 

Angle  valves  with  lock  and  shield  as  illustrated 
in  Fig.  34  are  much  used  in  public  buildings. 


RADIATION 


61 


Globe  valves  if  used  in  a  steam  heating  system 
restrict  the  flow  of  both  steam  and  condensed 
water.  Their  use  should  be  avoided  if  possible. 


Pig.    31. 


Figs.  35  and  36  show  vertical  cross-section  and 
outside  views  of  a  globe  valve. 

Swing  check  valves  should  only  be  used  on  the 
main  section  of  a  two-pipe  system,  close  to  the 
boiler,  or  when  the  return  is  underground,  to  pre- 


62 


RADIATION 


vent  the  bailer  from  being  emptied  from  a  leak  or 
break  in  the  return  pipe. 

An  outside  view  and  a  vertical  cross-section  of 
a  swing-cheek  valve  are  shown  in  Fig.  37. 

Corner  radiator  valves  are  generally  used  when 


Fig.    32. 

the  radiator  connections  are  above  the  floor  line. 
Right  and  left-hand  corner  valves  are  shown  in 
Fig.  38. 

A  brass  plug-cock  with  square  or  flat  head,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  39,  for  blowing  off  the  boiler,  should 
always  be  installed  either  in  the  return  pipe  near 


RADIATION 


63 


the  boiler  or  in  the  boiler  itself.  It  should  not  be 
directly  connected  with  a  pipe  to  the  sewer,  the 
of  the  pipe  should  be  in  plain  sight,  so  that 


Fig.   33. 


any  leakage  due  to  not  closing  the  cock  properly 
may  be  noticed. 

Unsteady  Water  Line  in  Boiler.  This  trouble 
often  results  from  grease  in  the  boiler,  the  grease 
usually  being  present  by  reason  of  its  use  in  the 


64 


RADIATION 


construction  of  the  piping  and  manufacture  of  the 
boiler  and  radiators.    The  grease  rests  on  the  sur- 


Fig.    34. 


fa.ce  of  the  water  in  the  holler,  forming  a  scum,  and 
when  this  occurs,  the  bubbles  of  air  formed  by  the 
boiling  water  cannot  reach  the  surface  of  the  water 


RADIATION 


65 


and  burst  off  into  steam.  This  causes  a  disturb- 
ance in  the  boiler,  the  bubbles  seeking  for  an  out- 
let naturally  finding  it  in  the  connection  to  the 
water  column,  or  gathering  in  such  force  under  a 


Fig.    35. 


portion  of  the  scum,  that  they  break  together,  and 
with  such  force  as  to  force  water  into  the  steam 
main,  often  causing  a  vacuum  wh.ch  will  empty 
the  water  glass  and  water  column  connections  en- 
tirely. 


66 


RADIATION 


Blow  the  boiler  off  under  pressure.  This  will 
usually  remove  most  of  the  grease,  if  the  unsteady 
line  is  due  to  grease.  It  may  be  necessary  to  repeat 


Fig.   36. 


this  operation  several  times,  at  intervals  of  a  few 
days,  before  the  boiler  is  entirely  clean.  If  the 
cause  be  due  to  the  construction  of  the  boiler,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  use  an  equalizing  pipe,  that 
is,  to  make  a  direct  connection  from  an  opening  in 


RADIATION 


67 


the  top  of  the  boiler  to  a  return  opening  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  boiler. 

Starting  a  Steam  Heating  Plant.  After  all  the 
connections  are  made,  pack  the  radiator  valves  and 
attach  the  air  valves.  Fill  the  boiler  to  the  water 
line  and  start  the  fire,  allowing  the  entire  system 
to  fill  with  steam  by  opening  all  the  valves.  When 
the  steam  has  blown  freely  out  of  all  air  valves, 


Pig.    37. 


close  the  same,  and  if  they  are  automatic  adjust 
and  regulate  them,  which  may  have  to  be  repeated 
a  number  of  times  before  they  are  in  good  working 
order.  Carry  the  pressure  of  steam  high  enough 
so  that  the  safety  valve  will  blow  off  from  5  to  10 
pounds.  Inspect  every  portion  of  the  system  care- 
fully, and  if  any  leaks  are  found  note  the  same  and 
when  the  steam  is  down  make  the  necessary  re- 


68 


RADIATION 


pairs.  After  the  system  is  found  tight,  keep  the 
boiler  under  fire  several  days,  and  then  blow  it  off 
according  to  the  following  directions: 

Close  the  main  steam  and  return  valves,  or  all 


Fig.   38. 


radiator  valves.  Make  a  good  fire  and  get  up  a 
pressure  of  at  least  ten  pounds.  Open  the  blow-off 
valve,  being  careful  that  just  enough  fire  is  car- 
ried to  maintain  a  pressure  until  the  last  gallon  of 
water  is  blown  out.  Allow  the  fire  to  go  out.  Open 


RADIATION  69 

the  fire  and  flue  doors,  and  in  about  half  an  hour, 
close  the  blow-off  valve,  and  refill  boiler  slowly  to 
the  water  line,  then  open  all  radiator  and  main 
valves,  and  start  the  fire. 

The  boiler  should  be  blown  off  within  a  week 
after  it  is  installed  and  in  operation. 


Fig.    39. 


Steam  Heating  Plant.  Figs.  40,  41  and  42  show 
the  plans  for  a  three-story  and  basement  apartment 
building  equipped  with  a  one-pipe  return  system. 
The  boiler,  steam  mains,  piping  to  radiators  and 
radiators  are  all  plainly  shown. 


70 


RADIATION 


Fig.  40.    Basement. 


RADIATION 


n 


Fig.il.    First  Story. 


RADIATION 


Kg,  42.    Second  and  Third  Story. 


RADIATION 


73 


TEMPERATURE  OF  STEAM  AT  VARYING  PRESSURES, 

IN  DEGREES  FAHRENHEIT. 

Gauge  Pressure. 

Absolute 
Pressure. 

Temperature  in 
Degs.  Fahrenheit. 

0 

15 

212 

5 

20 

228 

10 

25 

240 

15 

30 

250 

20 

35 

259 

25 

40 

267 

30 

45 

274 

35 

50 

281 

40 

55 

287 

45 

60 

292 

50 

65 

298 

55 

70 

302 

60 

75 

307 

65 

80 

312 

70 

85 

316 

75 

90 

320 

80 

95 

324 

85 

100 

327 

90 

105 

331 

95 

110 

334 

100 

115 

338 

110 

125 

344 

120 

135 

350 

130 

145 

355 

140 

155 

361 

150 

165 

366 

74  RADIATION 

Estimating.  Make  a  careful  survey  of  the  loca- 
tion, construction  and  exposure  of  the  building  to 
be  heated,  and  take  accurate  measurements  of  the 
size  of  the  glass  surface  and  exposed  walls  of  the 
rooms  in  which  the  radiators  are  to  be  placed. 

Having  ascertained  the  total  amount  of  radia- 
tion, select  a  boiler  having  a  rated  capacity  of  50 
per  cent  in  excess  of  the  total  radiation,  which  for 
the  average  system  will  allow  for  the  duty  imposed 
by  the  mains  and  provide  a  margin  of  20  per  cent. 

Make  a  plan  of  the  basement  to  scale,  locate  the 
boiler,  and  lay  out  the  pipe  system,  putting  down 
the  size  of  the  mains  and  the  branches. 

From  the  plan  obtain  the  number  of  lineal  feet 
of  each  size  of  pipe,  including  the  risers,  also  the 
number  and  size  of  all  fittings. 

Allow  one  air  valve  for  each  radiator,  and  one 
for  the  end  of  the  steam  main. 

The  number  and  size  of  the  floor  and  ceiling 
plates  may  be  counted  from  the  number  and  size 
of  risers  that  will  pass  through  the  floors  and  the 
ceilings. 

The  length  of  pipe  covering  may  be  obtained 
from  the  size  and  number  of  lineal  feet  of  pipe  in 
the  mains. 


SPECIFICATION  AND    CONTRACT  FOE   A 
STEAM  HEATING  PLANT. 

We  hereby  agree  to  furnish  and  install  in  your 

house, street,  a  Steam  Heating 

Plant,  under  the  conditions,  and  for  the  price  here- 
inafter named,  and  in  accordance  with  the  follow- 
ing specifications: 

Boilers.    Furnish  and  set  up  in  basement  one 

No. steam  boiler,  having  a  rated  capacity  of 

square  feet,  and  provide  same  with  a  set  of 

fire  and  cleaning  tools. 

Foundation.  The  owner  is  to  provide  a  suitable 
brick  or  concrete  foundation  for  the  boiler. 

Smoke  Pipe,  Connect  the  smoke  collar  of  the 
boiler  to  the  chimney  flue  by  a -inch  galvan- 
ized iron  smoke  pipe,  provided  with  a  choke 
damper. 

Chimney.  The  owner  is  to  provide  a  chimney 
flue  of  sufficient  size  and  height  to  secure  a  proper 
draught. 

Fittings.  The  steam  main,  risers  and  branches 
to  the  radiators  to  be  of  ample  areas  and  properly 
graded  and  supported  in  basement  by  neat,  strong 
hangers,  secured  to  ceiling  joists.  All  fittings  to 
be  of  best  grade  cast  iron,  and  reducing  fittings  to 
be  used,  not  bushings. 

75 


76  RADIATION 

F.  &  C.  Plates.  Where  risers  and  radiator  con- 
nections pass  through  floors  and  ceilings,  protect 
the  openings  with  neat  bronzed  or  nickel-plated 
floor  and  ceiling  plates. 

Valves.  Ea.ch  radiator  is  to  be  furnished  with 
a  nickel-plated  wood-wheel  Disc  Radiator  Valve. 

Air  Vents.  Each  radiator  ta  be  provided  with 
an  automatic  air  valve. 


HOT  WATER  HEATING. 

The  open  tank,  and  the  closed  tank  or  pressure 
systems  are  in  general  use. 

The  open  tank  system  is  preferable  to  the  closed 
tank  system,  as  it  may  be  more  easily  and  safely 
operated. 

In  the  open  tank  system  a  vent  pipe  is  carried 
from  the  expansion  tank  through  the  roof  or  side 
of  the  building  open  to  the  atmosphere.  The 
closed  tank  system  is  not  vented,  and  is  therefore 
under  pressure  and  requires  a  safety  valve. 

In  the  closed  tank  system  the  water  may  be 
heated  to  a  temperature  above  212  degrees,  the 
boiling  point  of  the  open  tank  system. 

A  safety  valve  should  be  placed  on  the  expansion 
tank,  with  a  pipe  running  from  the  open  side  of  the 
valve  to  a  sink  or  drain,  in  order  that  when  suffi- 
cient pressure  is  raised  to  operate  the  valve,  any 
overflow  of  water  may  be  carried  off  without  in- 
jury to  the  building. 

Ten  pounds  is  the  proper  pressure  at  which  the 
safety  valve  should  work  on  the  closed  tank  sys- 
tem. 

The  piping  for  the  closed  tank  or  high  pressure 
system  may  be  somewhat  smaller  than  for  the  open 
tank  or  low  pressure  system,  but  the  piping  should 

77 


78  HOT  WATER  HEATING 

be  run  and  the  connections  taken  off  in  the  same 
manner  for  each  system. 

The  mains  should  be  pitched  1  inch  for  each  10 
feet  of  length. 

The  mains  in  a  hot  water  system  should  not  be 
reduced  too  rapidly  as  branches  are  taken  off,  as 
the  greater  amount  of  friction  in  the  smaller  sizes 
of  pipe  will  cause  trouble. 

Radiators  may  be  heated  by  hot  water  on  the 
same  level  as  the  boiler,  or  below  it. 

Under  these  conditions  the  circulation  results 
from  the  weight  of  water  above  the  low  radiators. 
This  depends  on  the  ta^t  that  a  column  of  water 
2.32  feet  in  height  will  produce  about  1  pound  of 
pressure. 

This  may  be  done  by  carrying  the  flow  pipe  up 
so  as  to  get  a,  pressure  from  the  w^Vht  of  water 
above,  to  produce  circulation. 

A  hot  water  system  should  be  filled  from  the 
lowest  point  if  possible,  for  the  reason  that  the 
water  will  drive  the  air  out  of  the  system  as  it 
rises. 

The  air  vents  should  all  be  opened  to  allow  the 
air  to  escape,  being  closed  as  each  radiator  is  com- 
pletely filled  with  water. 

Round  Water  Heaters.  The  heater  shown 
in  Fig.  43  is  entirely  of  cast  iron  construc- 
tion, so  arranged  as  to  amply  provide 
for  expansion  and  contraction.  The  only 
joints  or  connections  are  formed  of  heavy 


HOT  WATER  HEATING 


79 


cast  iron  threaded  nipples,  making  a  per- 
fect joint,  with  no  possibility  of  leaks  from  any 
cause  whatsoever  and  absolute  freedom  from  all 


Fig.   43. 


necessity  of  packing  of  any  kind.    The  general 
construction  of  water  heaters  is  as  follows: 

The  circular  base,  or  ashpit,  which  also  forms 
the  support  for  the  grate,  is  substantially  made  of 


80 


HOT  WATER  HEATING 


Tig.   44. 


HOT  WATER  HEATING  81 

cast  iron  and  gives  a  safe  depth  for  accumulation 
of  ashes.  Resting  on  this  is  the  firepot  section, 
shown  in  Fig.  44.  This  section,  being  one  com- 
plete casting  in  itself,  and  tested  under  heavy 
pressure  before  leaving  the  shop,  is  abso- 
lutely free  from  mechanical  imperfections.  -  In 
the  center  of  the  top  of  this  section  is  a  large 
opening,  threaded  to  receive  a  nipple,  which  con- 
nects it  with  a  closed  section,  shown  in  the  right 
hand  upper  view,  Fig.  44.  This  first,  or  interme- 
diate section,  is  of  less  diameter  than  the  top  of 
the  firepot  section.  On  top  of  this  closed,  or  in- 
termediate section  and  attached  to  it  in  the  same 
manner,  as  described  for  the  connection  of  the 
firepot,  there  is  an  open  section  shown  in  the  right 
hand  upper  view,  Fig.  44,  which  is  of  the  same 
diameter  as  the  top  of  the  firepot  and  entirely  fills 
the  jacket  casings  hereinafter  described.  On  top 
of  this  is  placed  another  closed  section,  and  on 
top  of  this,  again  comes  the  top  section,  which  is 
either  the  steam  dome,  forming  the  steam  boiler, 
or  the  upper  water  section,  forming  the  water 
heater,  all  connected  together  in  the  manner  de- 
scribed, with  screw  nipples,  the  top  section,  or 
dome,  having  the  necessary  tappings  for  the  sup- 
ply outlets  for  steam,  or  the  flow  outlets  for 
water. 

Casings.  Extending  from  the  outer  edge  of  the 
top  of  the  firepot  section  to  the  top  of  the  upper 
section,  or  dome,  there  are  cast  iron  casings,  close- 


82  HOT  WATER  HEATING 

« 

ly  fitted  joints.  These  casings  are  made  in  seg- 
ments and  are  interchangeable  and  easily  applied, 
with  no  possibility  of  rusting,  wearing  out  or 
breaking.  They  form  in  themselves  a  perfect 
chamber  for  the  retention  of  products  of  combus- 
tion, compelling  these  to  follow  such  channels  as 
will  give  best  results. 

Firepot.  The  firepot  is  circular  in  form,  entire- 
ly surrounded  by  water,  is  made  in  one  perfect 
casting,  and  free  from  any  possible  chance  of 
leakages.  The  inner  surface  of  the  firepot  has 
projecting*  into  it  all  around  the  sides  a  multipli- 
city of  iron  points,  just  long  enough  to  prevent 
the  water  contract  from  chilling  the  fire  and  mak- 
ing it  possible  to  secure  perfect  combustion  and  a 
uniform  fire  around  the  edges  as  well  as  in  the 
center.  The  firepots  are  of  sufficient  depth  to  in- 
sure a  deep,  slow  fire,  forming  the  best  and  most 
economical  heat-producing  proposition  for  low 
pressure  heating. 

Grate.  The  grate  is  of  the  triangular  form  and 
is  at  all  times  easily  operated,  and  in  its  opera- 
tion it  pulverizes  all  clinkers  before  depositing 
in  ash  pit. 

On  all  the  larger  size  boilers  the  grates  are  fit- 
ted with  a  heavy  bearing  bar  in  the  center,  thus 
prolonging  the  life  of  the  grate  bars,  as  it  pre- 
vents their  warping. 

Simplicity  of  the  Grates.  The  construction  of 
the  grate  is  exceedingly  simple,  and  admits  of 


HOT  WATER  HEATING 


83 


any  one  bar  of  the  whole  grate  being  changed 
without  the  assistance  of  skilled  labor. 

Fig.  45  shows  vertical  cross-section  of  a  steam 
boiler. 


Fig.   45. 


Rectangular  Sectional  Heaters.  The  vertical 
sectional  type  of  steam  heaters  has  been  on  the 
market  and  in  all  forms  for  a  number  of  years. 
There  are  no  new  ideas  that  can  be  safely  exploit- 


84 


HOT  WATER  HEATING 


ed  in  this  line.  The  demand  is  for  a  simple,  prac- 
tical, easily  handled  device  that  will  absolutely 
endure  the  work  appropriated  for  it. 

The  heater  shown  in  Fig.  46  is  strong,  of  good 


Fig.   46. 


appearance,  thoroughly  accessible  for  cleaning, 
and,  so  far  as  can  be  determined  from  exterior  ap- 
pearances, a  most  satisfactory  heater.  The  good 
opinion  already  formed  of  the  heater  is  further 


HOT  WATER  HEATING 


85 


strengthened  by  reference  to  views  of  the  inter- 
mediate and  rear  sections  shown  in  Fig.  47  and 
48.  By  reference  to  these  cuts  it  will  be  seen  that 
every  possible  advantage  is  taken  of  the  fire  sur- 
face, it  being  the  belief  that,  unless  great  good  is 


Pig.  47. 


accomplished  in  direct  contact  with  the  fire,  there 
will  be  but  little  assistance  obtained  from  the 
flues. 

Firepots.    Firepots  of  this  type  of  heaters  are 
deep,  to  give  a  compact  body  of  fire,  and,  besides, 


86 


HOT  WATER  HEATING 


are  covered  with  numbers  of  iron  projections  to 
prevent  chilling  contact  of  the  fire  with  the  ex- 
posed water  surface  and  yet  secure  such  perfect 
combustion  as  will  quickly  impart  to  the  water 
the  heat  from  the  fuel  and  permit  of  maintaining 
at  all  times  a  clear,  even  fire  in  every  portion  of 
the  firepot. 


Illlll 

nun 


Fig.   48. 


Heater  Capacity.  The  capacity  of  the  heater 
should  be  at  least  20  per  cent  in  excess  of  the  total 
duty  imposed  upon  it  by  the  radiation  and  pipe 


HOT  WATER  HEATING  87 

Example:  Let  600  square  feet  equal  the  total 
radiation,  plus  25  per  cent  for  the  surfa.ce  of  the 
mains,  plus  20  per  cent  excess  heater  capacity, 
which  is  900  square  feet,  the  capacity  of  the  boiler 
required.  The  same  result  may  be  arrived  at  by 
adding  50  per  cent  to  the  radiation. 

When  direct-indirect  radiation  is  used,  an  ad- 
ditional 33  1/3  per  cent  must  be  allowed,  and 
when  indirect  radiation  is  used,  add  50  per  cent. 

Example : 

Total  direct  radiation=450  sq.  ft. 

One  direct-indirect  radiator—  60  "    " 

One  indirect  radiatoi^=190  "    " 


600      "  " 

25  per  cent  for  surface  of  mains=112.5  "  " 

33  1/3  per  cent  on  direct-indirect=  20      "  " 

50  per  cent  on  indirect  radiator=  45     "  l ' 

777.5  "    " 
20  per  cent  excess  capacity=155.5  "    " 

Heater  capacity    933      "    " 

Thermometers.  A  thermometer  should  be  at- 
tached to  every  water  heater  as  it  not  only  regis- 
ters the  temperature  of  the  water  but  it  indicates 
to  the  attendant  the  required  temperature  of  the 
water  to  be  maintained  for  different  conditions  of 
the  weather.  It  should  be  located  in  the  top  of  the 


88 


HOT  WATER  HEATING 


heater  or  in  the  side  near  the  top  so  that  the  closed 
brass  chambers  comes  in  direct  contact  with  the 


Fig.   49. 


water  circulation.     Thermometers  for  use  with 
water  heaters  are  shown  in  Fig.  49. 

Pipe  Systems.    The  quadruple  main  hot  water 
heating  system  shown  in  Fig.  50  when  properly 


HOT  WATER  HEATING 


89 


installed  will  give  very  satisfactory  results,  and 
on  account  of  the  small  size  of  the  mains  that  are 
required  it  comes  well  within  the  range  of  the  tool 
equipment  of  a  heating  contractor. 


The  double  main  system,  a,s  shown  in  Fig.  51, 
consists  of  flow  mains  starting  from  points  on  top 
of  the  boiler  and  running  horizontally  with  a  pitch 
of  1  inch  or  more  in  each  10  feet  from  the  boiler. 


90 


HOT  WATER  HEATING 


Fig.   51 


This  is  a  system  that  is  very  much  used  and  con- 
sidered by  many  the  best  practice  to  follow. 

The  single  pipe  overhead  or  down-feed  system 


HOT  WATER  HEATING 


91 


Fig.   52. 


92  HOT  WATER  HEATING 

is  much,  used  in  large  office  buildings.  As  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  52  a  single  feed  or  supply  pipe  runs 
from  the  top  of  the  heater  to  a  point  some  dis- 
tance above  the  highest  radiator.  At  this  point  the 
down-feed  pipes  branch  out  to  the  different  sets 
of  radiators.  The  expansion  tank  is  connected  to 
the  system  by  a  separate  pipe  at  a  point  near  the 
heater  as  shown.  A  vent  pipe  is  also  placed  at  the 
top  of  vertical  supply  pipe.  The  expansion  tank 
should  always  be  above  the  highest  line  of  pipe. 

Heating  Surface.  To  estimate  the  amount  of 
heating  surface  required  to  heat  a  room  with  hot 
water  to  a  temperature  of  70  degrees  in  zero 
weather,  with  the  water  at  a,  temperature  of  180 
degrees  at  the  heater  and  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions of  exposure,  the  following  rule  is  given, 
which  is  for  direct  radiation,  and  based  upon  the 
glass  surface  exposed  wall  surface  and  cubic  space. 

1  square  foot  of  radiation  to  1  square  foot  of 


1  square  foot  of  radiation  to  10  square  feet  of 
wall  exposed. 

1  square  foot  radiation  to  150  cubic  feet  of 

spaced. 

For  each  degree  of  temperature  above  or  below 
zero,  deduct  from  or  add  to,  1%  per  cent  of  the 
radiation  given  by  this  rule. 

Hot  Water  Mains.  The  proper  size  of  mains  for 
hot  water  heating  are  given  in  the  accompanying 
table: 


HOT  WATER  HEATING 


93 


Proper  Size  of  Hot  Water  Mains. 

Size  of  Main  in  Inches. 

Sq.  ft.  Direct  Radiation. 

IK 

175 

2 

300 

2K 

400 

3 

650 

3K 

900 

4 

1200 

4K 

1500 

5 

2000 

6 

2700 

7 

4000 

8 

5500 

Radiator  Connections.  All  radiator  connections 
should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  give  the  best  results. 


Tapping  of  Direct  Hot  Water  Radiators. 

40 
40  to    72 
72  to  100 
100  to  150 

1       x  1 
IX  x  IX 
IK  x  1# 
2      x  2 

Tapping  of  Direct    Hot  Water*  Radiators. 
Two  Pipe—  Two  Tappings. 

20 
20  to    40 
40  to    80 
80  to  120 

#  *   x 

1       x     % 
IX  xl 
IK  xlX 

Example:  Eequired  the  number  of  square  feet 
of  direct  radiation  for  a  room  10x10x10  feet,  hav- 
ing two  exposed  sides  and  two  windows 
feet. 


94  HOT  WATER  HEATING 

Answer: 

Glass  surface^     30  sq.  ft. —  1=  30     sq.  feet 
Exposed  walls=   200  sq.  ft.— 10=  20 
Cubic  space=l,000  en.  ft.— 10=    6.6      ' ' 
Total  direct  radiation=56.6      " 
Example:     Required  the  number  of  square  feet 
of  direct  radiation  for  the  same  room,  with  one 
exposed  side  and  one  window  2%x6  feet. 

Answer: 

Glass  surface;=     15  sq.  ft. —    1=  15      sq.  feet 
Exposed  walls=  100  sq.  ft.—  10=    6.6      " 
Cubic  space=l,000  en.  f t.— 150=_6.6      ' ' 
Total  direct  radiation=31.6      il 

When  indirect  radiation  in  used  75  per  cent 
should  be  added  to  the  above  figures. 


RADIATION. 

Direct  Radiation.  This  consists  of  a  heating 
surface  in  the  fonn  of  a  radiator  or  coil,  which  is 
placed  directly  in  the  room  to  be  heated. 

Indirect  Radiation.  Badiators  in  the  room  to 
be  heated  on  the  first  or  second  floor  are  located 
in  the  cellar  or  basement,  usually  directly  under 
the  rooms  to  be  heated.  There  is  placed  in  the 
floor  of  the  room  to  be  heated,  or  in  the  side  wall 
above  the  baseboard,  a  register  and  connection  is 
made  between  this  register  and  the  radiator  in 
the  basement  by  means  of  tin  or  sheet  iron  pipe, 
for  conveying  the  heated  air  into  the  room. 

The  indirect  radiator  is  placed  in  a.  chamber 
into  which  fresh  air  is  conveyed  from  outside,  and 
to  which  the  hot  air  flue  to  the  register  is  con- 
nected. 

The  distance  from  the  top  of  the  radiator  to 
the  ceiling  of  the  casing  should  be  from  10  to  12 
inches  and  from  the  bottom  of  the  radiator  to  the 
bottom  of  the  ca,sing  from  6  to  8  inches.  The  di- 
mensions of  the  cold  air  inlet  should  be  1%  square 
inches  for  each  square  foot  of  indirect  radiation. 
The  warm  air  outlet  should  be  2  square  inches  for 
each  square  foot  of  indirect  radiation,  which  would 
be  for  a  radiator  containing  100  square  feet  of 

95 


96  BADIATION 

radiation,  200  square  inches  of  cross  sectional  area, 
or  a  duct  10x20  inches.  The  dimensions  of  the 
warm  air  register  should  be  50  per  cent  larger 
than  those  of  the  warm  air  duct,  which  allows  for 
the  contracted  area  caused  by  the  register  face.  A 
warm  air  duct  having  200  square  inches  of  cross 
sectional  area  should  have  a  register  approxi- 
mating 300  square  inches. 

Direct-Indirect  Radiation.  This  system  serves 
a  double  purpose,  that  of  Direct  Radiation  and 
Ventilation,  and  is  also  placed  in  the  room  to  be 
heated  under  windows,  or  close  to  the  exposed 
walls. 

The  lower  front  part  of  the  radiator"  is  encased, 
having  an  opening  at  the  bottom  or  back  of  the 
base  for  the  introduction  of  cold  air  by  means  of  a 
duct  through  the  outside  wall  of  the  building. 

On  account  of  the  cooling  effect  of  the  outside 
air  passage  between  the  coils  of  the  radiator,  in- 
creased heating  surface  to  the  amount  of  33  1/3 
per  cent  must  be  added  toi  make  it  equivalent  to 
direct  radiation. 

This  system  of  radiation  is  seldom  used  in  the 
heating  of  houses,  being  more  necessary  where 
ventilation  is  required  in  the  heating  of  public 
buildings  and  schools. 

Instead  of  placing  all  of  the  radiators  at  one 
point,  it  is  well  to  divide  it  into  two  or  more  radi- 
ators, according  to  the  size  of  the  room.  As  heat- 
ing with  steam  or  hot  water  is  accomplished  by  the 


RADIATION  97 

turning  or  circulation  of  the  air  in  the  room,  it  is 
well  to  divide  and  place  the  radiation  at  the  most 
exposed  points,  in  order  to  better  heat  the  room. 

In  small  houses  a  radiator  placed  in  the  lower 
hall,  if  sufficiently  large,  will  heat  the  hall  above, 
but  in  large  buildings,  where  the  hall  space  is 
large,  the  upper  halls  should  have  radiators  placed 
in  them. 

Radiators.  Heating  surfaces  are  divided  into 
three  classes:  Direct  radiation,  Indirect  radia- 
tion and  Direct-indirect  radiation. 

Direct  radiation  covers  all  radiators  placed 
within  a  room  or  building  to  warm  the  air,  and 
are  not  connected  with  a  system  of  ventilation. 

The  best  place  within  a  room  to  place  a  single 
radiator,  is  where  the  air  is  cooled,  before  or  under 
the  windows,  or  on  the  outside  walls.  When  the 
radiator  is  of  vertical  tube,  or  a  short  coil,  which 
can  occupy  only  the  space  under  one  window,  and 
when,  as  often  occurs,  there  are  three  windows, 
the  riser  should  be  so  placed  as  to  bring  the  line 
of  radiators  in  front  of,  and  under  the  windows 
where  they  will  do  the  most  good.  When  a,  small 
extra  cost  is  not  considered,  to  use  two  radiators 
and  place  one  in  front  of  each  of  the  extreme  win- 
dows. 

When  the  room  is  large  and  has  many  windows, 
the  heating  surface,  when  composed  of  radiators, 
should  be  divided  into  as  many  units  as  possible. 

Indirect  radiation  embraces  all  heating  surfaces 


98  RADIATION 

placed  outside  the  rooms  to  be  heated,  and  can 
only  be  used  in  connection  with  some  system  of 
ventilation. 


Fig.    53. 


All  the  heating  surface  is  placed  in  a  chamber, 

and  the  warmed  air  distributed  through  air  ducts. 

Figs.  53,  54  and  55  show  two,  three  and  four 


RADIATION 


Pig.   54. 


100  RADIATION 

column  forms  of  direct  radiators/ and  Fig.  56  a 
two-piece  hall  or  window  direct  radiator. 

The  indirect  radiator  is  usually  boxed,  either  in 
wood  lined  with  tin,  or  in  galvanized  iron.    The 


Fig.  55 

former  is  best  when  the  basement  is  to  be  kept 
cool,  as  there  is  a  greater  loss  by  radiation  through 
metal  cases,  otherwise  the  sheet  metal  is  the  best, 
as  it  will  not  crack. 
Indirect  radiators  are  usually  hung  from  the 


101 


ceiling  in  the  basement  under  the  rooms  they  are 
intended  to  heat.    A  cold  air  duct  is  carried  from 


Fig. 


an  opening  in  the  outside  wall  to  the  stack  box. 
This  duct  must  be  provided  with  a  damper,  and  its 


Fig.  57. 


inlet  covered  on  the  face  of  the  outside  of  the  wall 
with  a  wire  screen  of  small  mesh. 


RADIATION 


Pig.  58. 


RADIATION  103 

The  box  inclosing  the  radiator  shown  in  Figs. 
57  and  58  is  made  of  wood  lined  with  bright  tin 
about  half-way  down.  The  sides  of  the  box  should 
almost  touch  the  hubs  of  the  radiator  on  both  ends, 


Fig.   59. 

so  that  the  cold  air  coming  in  through  the  duct 
will  surely  find  its  way  up  between  the  sections  of 
the  radiator,  and  not  around  the  ends  of  it. 

The  radiator  is  shown  connected  for  a  two-pipe 
hot  water  system. 

The  cold  air  duct  is  provided  with  a  slide,  so 
that  the  air  may  be  shut  off  when  it  is  not  wanted, 


104 


RADIATION 


or  when  the  radiator  is  turned  off.  The  radiator 
should  be  so  hung  in  the  box  that  the  space  above 
it  is  about  one-third  more  than  the  space  below; 
this  provides  for  the  expansion  of  the  air  after  it 
has  been  warmed  by  contact  with  the  radiator. 

Brackets    for    supporting  the  hall  or  window 
types  of  direct  radiator  are  shown  in  Fig.  59. 


Fig. 


A  direct-indirect  form  of  radiator  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  60,  in  which  the  air  is  taken  from  the  out- 
side of  the  room  to  be  heated  and  passes  up  be- 
tween the  sections  of  the  radiator  as  shown,  the 
front  of  the  radiator  being  encased. 


RADIATION 


105 


Two  COLUMN  RADIATOR  FOR  STEAM  OR  HOT 

WATER  HEATING. 

No.  of 

Sec- 
tions. 

2 

Length 
in 
Inches. 

SQUARE  FEET  OF  HEATING  SURFACE. 

45 
Inches 
High. 

38 
Inches 
High. 

32 
Inches 
High. 

26 
Inches 
High. 

23 
Inches 
High. 

20 
Inches 
High. 

5 

10 

8 

6| 

51- 

4% 

4 

3 

7X 

15 

12 

10 

8 

7 

6 

4 

10 

20 

16 

13| 

101 

9% 

8 

5 

12% 

25 

20 

16| 

13| 

11% 

10 

6 

15 

30 

24 

20 

16 

14 

12 

7 

17% 

35 

28 

231 

18! 

16% 

14 

8 

20 

40 

32 

26| 

21$ 

18% 

16 

9 

22% 

45 

36 

30 

24 

21 

18 

10 

25 

50 

40 

83* 

26f 

23% 

20 

11 

27% 

55 

44 

36! 

291 

25% 

22 

12 

30 

60 

48 

40 

32 

28 

24 

13 

32% 

65 

52 

43^- 

34! 

30% 

26 

14 

35 

70 

56 

46| 

371 

32% 

28 

15 

37% 

75 

60 

50 

40 

35 

30 

16 

40 

80 

64 

531 

42! 

37% 

32 

17 

42% 

85 

68 

56| 

451 

39% 

34 

18 

45 

90 

72 

60 

48 

42 

36 

19 

47% 

95 

76 

631 

50f 

44% 

38 

20 

50 

100 

80 

66| 

531 

46% 

40 

106 


RADIATION 


THREE-COLUMN  RADIATOR  FOR  STEAM  OR  HOT 

WATER  HEATING. 

Number  of 
Sections. 

Length  in 
Inches. 

SQUARE  FEET  OF  HEATING  SURFACE. 

39 
Inches 
High. 

33 
Inches. 
High. 

27 
Inches 
High. 

21 
Inches 
High. 

2 

5 

12 

10  1-2 

8  1-2 

6  1-2 

3 

71-2 

18 

153-4 

123-4 

93-4 

4 

10 

24 

21 

17 

13 

5 

12  1-2 

30 

26  1-4 

21  1-4 

16  1-4 

6 

15 

36 

31  1-2 

25  1-2 

19  1-2 

7 

17  1-2 

42 

363-4 

293-8 

223-4 

8 

20 

48 

42 

34 

26 

9 

22  1-2 

54 

471-4 

38  1-4 

29  1-4 

10 

25 

60 

52  1-2 

42  1-2 

32  1-2 

11 

27  1-2 

66 

573-4 

463-4 

353-4 

12 

30 

72 

63 

51 

39 

13 

32  1-2 

78 

68  1-4 

55  1-4 

42  1-4 

14 

35 

84 

73  1-2 

59  1-2 

45  1-2 

15 

37  1-2 

90 

783-4 

633-4 

483-4 

16 

40 

96 

84 

68 

52 

17 

42  1-2 

102 

89  1-4 

72  1-4 

55  1-4 

18 

45 

108 

94  1-2 

76  1-2 

581-2 

19 

471-2 

114 

993-4 

803-4 

613-4 

20 

50 

120 

105 

85 

65 

RADIATION 


107 


FOUR-COLUMN   RADIATOR  FOR   STEAM  OR   HOT 

WATER  HEATING. 

Number 
of 
Sections. 

Length 
in 
Inches. 

SQUARE  FEET  OF  HEATING  SURFACE. 

42  1-2 
Inches 
High. 

38  1-2 
Inches 
High. 

32  1-2 
Inches 
High. 

26  1-2 
Inches 
High. 

20  1-2 
Inches 
High. 

2 

8  1-2 

19   1-3 

16 

13  1-3 

10  2-3 

8 

3 

12  1-2 

29 

24 

20 

16 

12 

4 

16  1-2 

38  2-3 

32 

26  2-3 

21  1-3 

16 

5 

203-4 

48  1-3 

40 

33  1-3 

26  2-3 

20 

6 

243-4 

58 

48 

40 

32 

24 

7 

283-4 

67  3-3 

56 

46  2-3 

37  1-3 

28 

8 

323-4 

77  1-3 

64 

53  1-3 

42  2-3 

32 

9 

37 

87 

72 

60 

48 

36 

10 

41 

96  2-3 

80 

66  2-3 

53  1-3 

40 

11 

45 

106  1-3 

88 

73  1-3 

58  2-3 

44 

12 

49 

116 

96 

80 

64 

48 

13 

53 

125  2-3 

104 

86  2-3 

69  1-3 

52 

14 

57  1-2 

135  1-3 

112 

93  1-3 

74  2-3 

56 

15 

61  1-2 

145 

120 

100 

80 

60 

16 

65  1-2 

154  2-3 

128 

106  2-3 

85  1-3 

64 

17 

69  1-2 

164  1-3 

136 

113  1-3 

90  2-3 

68 

18 

733-4 

172 

144 

120 

96 

72 

19 

773-4 

183  2-3 

152 

126  2-3 

101  1-3 

76 

20 

82 

193  1-3 

160 

133  1-3 

106  2-3 

80 

108 


RADIATION 


Radiator  Connections.  Methods  of  connecting 
radiators  used  in  water  heating  plants  are  shown 
in  Fig.  61. 


Radiator  Valves.  For  use  with  hot  water  heat- 
ing systems,  angle  radiator  valves  that  have  a  full 
opening  for  a  half  turn  of  the  wheel  are  usually 
employed.  They  have  wood  wheel,  union  connec- 
tion and  nickel-plated  trimmings.  This  style  of 
valve  is  illustrated  in  Figs.  62  and  63. 

Angle  valves  with  or  without  union  connection, 
with  wood  wheel  and  nickel-plated  trimmings,  of 
the  disk  seat  type  are  also  used.  They  are  shown 
in  Figs,  64  and  65. 

Gate  valves  as  shown  in  Figs.  66  and  67  are  used 
with  down  feed  or  overhead  systems  or  when  the 
radiator  connections  are  made  above  the  floor. 


RADIATION 


109 


Globe  valves  as  shown  in  Fig.  68  should  not,  if 
possible,  to  do  without,  be  used  in  hot  water  heat- 
ing systems,  as  their  use  interferes  with  the  free 
circulation  of  the  water. 


Fig.   62. 


A  corner  valve  for  use  when  the  radiates  con- 
nections are  above  the  floor  is  shown  in  Fig.  69; 
they  are  made  both  right  and  left-hand  and  with 
union  connection. 


110  RADIATION 

A  square  or  flat  plug-cock  should  be  always 
placed  in  the  return  pipe  close  to  the  boiler  or  in 
the  boiler  itself,  as  close  to  the  bottom  as  possible. 


Fig.    63. 


It  should  not  have  any  direct  connection  to  the 
sewer,  but  the  discharge  end  of  the  pipe  should  be 
in  plain  sight  so  that  any  leakage  due  to  negli- 


RADIATION 


111 


gence  in  closing  the  cock  may  be  quickly  seen. 
Fig.  70  shows  both  square  and  flat-head  plug- 
cocks. 
The  union-elbow  shown  in  Fig.  71  is  used  to 


Fig.   64. 

make  the  return  connection  from  the  radiation  to 
the  main.  Check  valves  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  72 
are  sometimes  used  in  the  return  main  of  a  hot 
water  heating  system. 


112  RADIATION 

Check  Valve.  It  is  well  understood  that  the 
common  check  valve  is  a  very  poor  article  when  it 
is  put  to  constant  work,  as  it  soon  becomes  pound- 


Fig 


ed  out  of  the  seat,  thereby  leaking.  It  also  wears 
oblong  in  consequence  of  the  back  pressure  com- 
ing against  the  side  of  the  feather,  which  back 
pressure  prevents  the  valve  from  closing  promptly, 


RADIATION 


113 


thereby  permitting  considerable  water  to  return 
to  the  pump. 
The  common  valves  are  very  much  choked  by 


Fig.    66. 


the  guides,  so  that  not  more  than  two-thirds  of 
their  area  is  serviceable. 

The  cup  pattern  valve  shown  in  Fig.  72  has  a 


114 


RADIATION 


much  larger  seat,  a  larger  area,  and  is  so  con- 
structed that  the  back  pressure  comes  on  the  top 
of  valve,  thus  preventing  the  side  wear  of  the  seat, 
and  insuring  prompt  closing. 


Fig.    67. 


Expansion  Tank.  The  purpose  of  an  expansion 
tank  is  to  provide  for  the  increased  bulk  of  the 
water  in  a  hot  water  heating  system,  as  water  ex- 


RADIATION  115 

pands  about  one-twentieth  of  its  bulk  from  40  to 
212  degrees  Fahrenheit  or  to  the  boiling  point  of 
water.  The  expansion  tank  should  always  be 


Fig.   68. 


placed  at  the  highest  point  of  the  system  and  near 
the  ceiling  at  least  3  or  4  feet  above  the  highest 
radiator  or  even  higher  if  possible. 


116 


RADIATION 


The  expansion  tank  should  not  require  more 
than  one  or  two  gallons  per  month  to  replenish 
the  loss  by  evaporation.  The  overflow  or  vapor 


Fig.    69. 

pipe  should  be  carried  to  the  nearest  drain.  The 
expansion  tank  should  never  be  placed  in  an  ex- 
tremely cold  place  or  an  unheated  room  if  possible. 
A  stop-cock  or  globe-valve  should  never  be  placed 
in  the  pipe  leading  to  the  expansion  tank. 


RADIATION  117 

The  expansion  tank  should  be  located  in  a  warm 
room,  to  prevent  freezing. 


Fig.   70. 

The  overflow  from  the  expansion  tank  should 
be  carried  through  the  roof,  and  on  the  end  of  the 


Fig.   71. 

pipe  a  return  bend  should  be  placed,  in  order  that 

the  water  may  not  run  down  the  side  of  the  pipe. 

The  expansion  tank  should  hold  from  1-20  to 


118  RADIATION 

1-30  of  the  amount  of  water  contained  in  the  entire 
system, 

For  the  reason  that  when  at  .the  boiling  point, 
the  water  in  the  system  will  occupy  a  considerably 
larger  space  than  when  cold. 

At  its  boiling  point,  water  fills  a,  space  about  5 


Fig.   72.  - 

per  cent,  greater  in  volume  than  at  its  densest 
point,  when  cold.  When  cold,  the  water  must  fill 
the  entire  system.  Therefore  provision  must  be 
made  to  take  care  of  this  extra  volume  when  the 
water  is  at  the  boiling  point. 

The  expansion  tank  is  provided  for  this  purpose 
on  all  hot  water  heating  systems. 


RADIATION 

When  a  wooden  lead-lined  tank  is  used  and  the 
water  supply  can  be  obtained  from  the  city  water 
main,  a  float  device  replenishes'  the  water  automa- 
tically. 


Fig.    73. 


If  there  be  no  water  pressure  available  the  tank 
must  be  filled  by  hand  through  a  funnel. 

A  galvanized  steel  expansion  tank  is  shown  in 
Fig.  73.  The  overflow  pipe,  vent  and  water  sup- 
ply openings  are  all  clearly  shown. 


120 


RADIATION 


Fig.   74. 


A  water  gauge  for  use  on  an  expansion  tank  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  74, 


HOT  WATER  HEATING 


121 


CAPACITY  OF  EXPANSION  TANKS. 

No. 

Diam.  in 
Inches. 

Capacity 
Gallons. 

Sq.  Ft.  of 
Radiation. 

No. 

Diam.  in 
Inches. 

Capacity 
Gallons. 

Sq.  Ft.  of 
Radiation. 

0 

16 

8 

250 

5 

31 

32 

1,300 

1 

IT* 

10 

300 

6 

32 

42 

2,000 

2 

20 

15 

500 

7 

37 

66 

3,000 

3 

23 

20 

700 

8 

39 

82 

5,000 

4 

25 

26 

950 

9 

40 

100 

6,000 

Altitude  Gauge.    The  gauge  shown  in  Fig.  75 
denotes  the  height  of  a  column  of  water  in  a,  reser- 


Fig.  75. 


voir  or  tank  used  in  connection  with  heating  or 
wherever  it  is  desired. 

The  adjustable  hand  indicates  the  number  of 


122  HOT  WATER  HEATING 

feet  in  height  at  which  the  water  should  be  con- 
stant in  the  reservoir,  and  is  so  set  by  the  user 
when  the  gage  is  put  up. 

The  hand  operated  by  the  gauge  tube  spring, 
which  the  pressure  of  the  column  of  water  actu- 
ates, shows  in  graduations  on  the  dial  marked  in 
feet  the  actual  height  of  water  in  the  tank  or  re- 
servior  and  consequently  the  fluctuations  in  the 
height  of  water  due  to  its  use,  and  thus  enables 
the  user  instantly  to  know  whether  the  water 
column  is  of  the  required  and  proper  height  to 
be  maintained.  It  is  of  great  service  and  useful- 
ness in  this  respect. 

The  gauge  has  two  dials,  the  red  one  being 
moveable  only  by  hand,  the  black  one  being  con- 
nected with  the  mechanism  of  the  gauge.  When 
the  system  is  first  filled  to  the  required  height,  the 
spring  dial  of  the  gauge  shows  the  height  in  feet 
of  the  water  in  the  system.  The  face  of  the  gauge 
is  then  taken  off,  and  the  red  dial  moved  to  a  point 
directly  under  the  spring  dial,  and  pointing  to  the 
same  number  on  the  gauge.  As  the  water  in  the 
system  evaporates  by  use,  the  spring  dial  drops 
away  from  the  red  dial,  indicating  less  water  in 
the  system. 

By  the  use  of  an  altitude  gauge  at  the  boiler,  the 
necessity  of  watching  the  expansion  tank  to  know 
the  amount  of  water  in  it,  is  avoided,  as  the  gauge 
at  the  boiler  registers  the  height  of  water  in  feet 
in  the  system. 


HOT  WATLII  HEATING 


128 


APPROXIMATE  RADIATING  SURFACE  To  CUBIC 

CAPACITIES  OF  SPACE  TO  BE  HEATED. 

One  Square  Foot 
of  Radiating 
Surface  will  Heat. 

CUBIC       FEET       OF      AIR. 

In  Dwellings, 
School-Rooms 
and  Offices. 

In  Halls,  Lofts, 
Stores  and 
Factories. 

In  Churches  and 
Large  Audi- 
toriums. 

With  direct 

hot-water  radi- 

30 to  50 

60  to  80 

90  to  150 

ating  surface. 

With  indirect 

hot-water  radi- 

15 to  35 

20  to  45 

60  to  100 

ation. 

With  direct 

hot-water  radi- 

50 to  80 

70  to  100 

160  to  250 

ating  surface. 

With  indirect 

hot-water  radi- 

40 to  50 

55  to  75 

100  to  150 

ation. 

Starting  a  hot  water  heating  plant.  The  expan- 
sion tank  should  always  be  placed  in  position  at 
the  same  time  a,s  the  radiators. 

After  the  system  is  erected  and  all  connections 
made,  each  radiator  valve  should  be  packed.  The 
air  valves  should  be  attached  to  the  radiators,  and 
should  be  shut  off,  preparatory  to  filling  the  sys- 
tem with  water. 

When  either  or  both  a  hot-water  thermometer 
or  altitude  gauge  are  to  be  used  they  should  be  at- 
tached at  this  time,  provision  being  made  for  con- 
necting them  when  erecting  the  mains. 


124 


HOT  WATER  HEATING 


Fill  the  system  with  water  slowly   until  the 
heater  and  mains  are  full.    If  any  leaks  are  discov- 


Fig.  76.— Basement. 


ered,  but  not  serious,  continue  to  fill  the  system 
with  water  until  the  water  can  be  drawn  freely 
from  the  air  valves  on  the  first  floor  radiators. 


HOT  WATER  HEATING  125 

Open  all  the  radiator  valves  and  start  a  slow 
fire,  and  when  the  system  is  tight,  raise  the  tem- 


Fig.  77.-First  Floor. 

perature  of  the  water  to  the  boiling  point,  or  212 
degrees  Fahrenheit  which  should  be  easily  done  if 
all  conditions  are  right. 


126 


HOT  WATER  HEATING 


After  a  day's  test  the  fire  should  be  let  out,  and 
the  entire  system  drained,  and  all  leaks  that  have 


Fig.  78  —Second  Floor. 


been  discovered  repaired,  when  the  system  should 
be  refilled  with  fresh  water. 
Hot  water  heating  plant.    The  following  illus- 


HOT  WATER  HEATING  127 

trations  shown  in  Figs.  76,  77  and  78  are  the  plans 
for  a  nine  room  house,  heated  by  a,  double-main 
hot  water  system.  The  boiler,  water,  mains,  pip- 
ing to  radiators,  and  the  radiators  are  all  plainly 
shown. 


SPECIFICATIONS  AND   CONTRACT  FOR  A 
HOT  WATER  HEATING  PLANT. 

We  hereby  agree  to  furnish  and  install  in  your 
residence, Street,  a  Rot  Water  Heat- 
ing Plant  under  the  conditions,  and  for  the  price 
hereinafter  named,  and  in  accordance  with  the 
following  specifications: 

Boiler— To  provide  and  set  up  in  basement  one 
No Hot  Water  Boiler,  having  a,  rated  capa- 
city of square  feet,  and  furnished  with  a 

set  of  fire  and  cleaning  tools. 

Foundation— The  owner  is  to  provide  a  suitable 
foundation  for  the  boiler  of  brick  or  concrete. 

Smoke  Pipe— The  smoke  collar  of  the  boiler  to 
be  connected  to  the  chimney  flue  by  a  . .  inch  gal- 
vanized iron  smoke  pipe,  closely  fitted  and  provid- 
ed with  a  choke  damper. 

Chimney— The  owner  shall  provide  a  chimney 
flue  of  proper  size  and  height  to  secure  sufficient 
draft. 

Fittings— The  mains,  risers  and  branches  to  be 
of  ample  area,  properly  graded.  The  mains  to  be 


128  HOT  WATER  HEATING 

supported  in  the  basement  by  neat,  strong  hangers, 
secured  to  ceiling  joists.  All  fittings  to  be  of  best 
grade  cast  iron  to  be  used. 

Floor  and  Ceiling  Plates— Where  risers  and 
radiator  connections  pass  through  floors  and  ceil- 
ings, place  bronzed  or  nickel-plated  floor  and  ceil- 
ing plates. 

Valves— Each  radiator  to  be  furnished  with  a 
nickel-plated  wood-wheel,  quick  opening  radiator 
valve. 

Union  Ells— The  return  end  of  each  radiator  to 
be  provided  with  a  nickel-plated  elbow,  with  union 
coupling. 

Air  Vents— Each  radiator  to  be  furnished  with 
a  nickel-plated  air  valve,  with  key  or  wood-wheel. 

Water  Supply— The  owner  is  to  provide  a  con- 
nection in  the  water  service  pipe,  near  the  boiler, 
for  the  water  supply. 

Expansion  Tank— Provide  and  place  in  proper 
position  a  heavy  galvanized  iron  expansion  tank, 
complete  with  water  gauge. 

Altitude  Gauge— Furnish  and  attach  in  proper 
position  on  boiler  one  5-inch  Altitude  Gauge  with 
stop  cock. 


Estimating.  Make  a  careful  survey  of  the  loca- 
tion, construction  and  exposure  of  the  building  to 
be  heated,  and  take  accurate  measurements  of  the 
size  of  the  glass  surface  and  exposed  walls  of  the 
rooms  in  which  the  radiators  are  to  be  placed. 

Having  ascertained  the  total  amount  of  radia- 
tion, select  a  heater  having  a  rated  capacity  of  50 
per  cent  in  excess  of  the  total  radiation,  which  for 
the^  average  system  will  allow  for  the  duty  imposed 
by  the  mains  and  provide  a  margin  of  20  per  cent. 

Make  a  plan  of  the  basement  to  scale,  locate  the 
heater,  and  lay  out  the  pipe  system,  putting  down 
the  size  of  the  mains  and  the  branches. 

From  the  plan  obtain  the  number  of  lineal  feet 
of  each  size  of  pipe,  including  the  risers,  also  the 
number  and  size  of  all  fittings. 

Allow  one  air  valve  for  each  radiator. 

The  number  and  size  of  the  floor  and  ceiling 
plates  may  be  counted  from  the  number  and  size 
of  risers  that  will  pass  through  the  floors  and  the 
ceilings. 

The  length  of  pipe  covering  may  be  obtained 
from  the  size  and  number  of  lineal  feet  of  pipe  in 
the  mains. 

Smoke  Pipes.  Steam  boiler  smoke  pipes  range 
in  size  from  about  8  inches  in  the  smaller  sizes 
to  10  or  12  inches  in  the  larger  ones.  They  are 

129 


130  HOT  WATER  HEATING 

generally  made  of  galvanized  iron.  Tine  pipe 
should  be  carried  to  the  chimney  as  directly  as 
possible,  avoiding  bends,  which  increase  the  re- 
sistance and  diminish  the  draft.  When  the  draft 
is  known  to  be  good  the  smoke  pipe  may  pur- 
posely be  made  longer  to  allow  the  gases  to  part 
with  more  of  their  heat  before  reaching  the  chim- 
ney. Where  a  smoke  pipe  passes  through  a  parti- 
tion it  should  be  protected  by  a  double  perforated 
metal  collar  at  least  6  inches  greater  in  diameter 
than  the  pipe. 

The  top  of  the  smoke  pipe  should  not  be  placed 
within  8  inches  of  exposed  beams  nor  less  than  6 
inches  under  beams  protected  by  asbestos  or  plas- 
ter. The  connection  between  the  smoke  pipes  and 
the  chimney  frequently  becomes  loose,  allowing 
cold  air  to  be  drawn  in,  thus  diminishing  the 
draft.  A  collar  to  make  the  connection  tight 
should  be  riveted  to  the  pipe  about  5  inches  from 
the  end,  to  prevent  its  being  pushed  too  far  into 
the  flue. 

Chimney  Flues.  Flues,  if  built  of  brick,  should 
have  walls  8  inches  in  thickness,  unless  terra  cotta 
linings  are  used,  when  only  4  inches  of  brick  work 
is  required.  Except  in  small  houses,  where  an 
8x8  flue  may  be  used,  the  nominal  size  of  the 
smoke  flue  should  be  at  least  8x12,  to  allow  a 
margin  for  possible  contractions  at  offsets,  or  for 
a  thick  coating  of  mortar.  A  clean  out  door  should 
be  placed  at  the  bottom.  A  square  flue  cannot  be 


HOT  WATER  HEATING 


131 


reckoned  at  its  full  area,  as  the  comers  are  of  lit- 
tle value.  An  8x8  flue  is  practically  very  little 
more  effective  than  one  of  circular  form  8  inches 
diameter.  To  avoid  down  drafts  the  top  of 


in 


the  chimney  should  be  carried  above  the  highest 

Dimensions  of  Chimney  Flues  for  Given  Amounts  of  Direct 
Radiation 


Square  Feet  of 
Steam  Radiation 

Diameter  of 
Round  Flue 

Square  or 
Rectangular  Flue 

250 

8  inches 

8  in.  x    8  in. 

300 

8  inches 

8  in.  x    8  in. 

400 

8  inches 

8  in.  x    8  in. 

500 

10  inches 

8  in.  x  12  in. 

600 

10  inches 

8  in.  x  12  in. 

700 

10  inches 

8  in.  x  12  in. 

800 

12  inches 

12  in.  x  12  in. 

900 

12  inches 

12  in.  x  12  in. 

1000 

12  inches 

12  in.  x  12  in. 

1200 

12  inches 

12  in.  x  12  in. 

1400 

14  inches 

12  in.  x  16  in. 

1600 

14  inches 

12  in.  x  16  in. 

1800 

14  inches 

12  in.  x  16  in. 

2000 

14  inches 

12  in.  x  16  in. 

2200 

16  inches 

16  in.  x  16  in. 

3000 

16  inches 

16  in.  x  16  in. 

3500 

18  inches 

16  in.  x  20  in. 

5000 

18  inches 

16  in.  x  20  in. 

point  of  the  roof,  unless  provided  with  a  suitable 
top  or  hood. 

Fuel  Combustion.  Combustion  is  one  form  of 
chemical  action,  accompanied  by  the  generation 
of  heat.  When  such  action  takes  place  slowly  the 
heat  produced  is  almost  imperceptible,  but  when 
it  takes  place  rapidly,  as  in  the  burning  of  wood, 


132  HOT  WATER  HEATING 

coal,  etc.,  the  heat  becomes  intense.  In  the  burn- 
ing of  ordinary  fuel,  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of 
the  coal  combine  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and 
produce  combustion,  without  which  no  material 
results  may  be  obtained  from  the  fuel. 

Combustion  depends  upon  the  presence  of  oxy- 
gen, without  which  it  cannot  take  place. 

Combustion  is  estimated  by  the  number  of 
pounds  of  fuel  consumed  per  hour  by  one  square 
foot  of  grate  surface. 

One  square  foot  of  grate  will  consume  about  5 
pounds  of  hard  coal  per  hour,  or  about  10  pounds 
of  soft  coal,  under  a  natural  draft. 

For  7%  to  10  pounds  of  coal  consumed,  one 
cubic  foot  of  water  will  be  evaporated. 

A  fire  of  a  depth  of  12  inches  will  do  more  ef- 
ficient work  than  one  of  less  depth. 

The  use  of  too  large  coal  is  attended  with  large 
air  spaces  between  the  pieces,  and  this  large 
amount  of  air  is  too  great  for  the  gases  escaping 
from  the  combustion  of  the  coal,  allowing  the 
gases  to  escape  into  the  chimney  flue  unburned. 

The  use  of  too  small  coal  is  not  advisable,  as  it 
packs  down  so  compactly  as  to  prevent  the  admis- 
sion of  the  proper  amount  of  air  through  the  grate 
to  produce  good  combustion. 


FURNACE  HEATING. 

Furnace  Heating.  Since  1  square  foot  of  glass 
will  transmit  about  85  heat  units  per  hour  when 
the  difference  between  the  inside  and  outside  tem- 
perature is  70  degrees,  to  ascertain  the  total  loss  of 
heat  by  transmission  multiply  the  exposed  glass 
surface  by  85. 

If  the  air  enters  through  the  register  at  140  de- 
grees, under  zero  conditions,  it  is  plain  that  one- 
half  the  heat  supplied  is  carried  away  by  the  air 
escaping  at  70  degrees  the  other  half  being  lost 
through  the  walls  and  windows.  Therefore,  twice 
the  amount  of  heat  lost  by  transmission  must  be 
supplied  by  the  furnace. 

As  8000  heat  units  are  utilized  per  pound  of 
coal  burned  in  a  well  proportioned  house  heating 
furnace,  with  a  maximum  coal  consumption  of  5 
pounds  per  square  foot  of  grate  surface  per  hour 
there  are  consequently  8000X5=40,000  heat  units 
per  hour  per  square  foot  of  grate  surface  trans- 
mitted to  the  air  passing  through  the  furnace.  Di- 
viding the  total  loss  of  heat  per  hour  (that  is  the 
total  exposure  in  terms  of  the  exposed  glass  sur- 
face) by  40,000  will  give  the  required  grate  surface 
in  square  feet,  from  which  the  diameter  of  the  fire 
pot  in  inches  may  be  readily  determined. 

133 


134  FURNACE  HEATING 

That  is:  Total  Exposure  X  170 

40,000 

Total  Exposure 

~  ' ooc —          =  required  grate  surface. 

zoo 

Furnaces.  In  the  furnace  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion at  Fig.  79  the  combustion  drum  from  top  to 
bottom  consists  of  one  sheet  of  steel,  its  seams  be- 
ing riveted  until  gas-tight  so  that  where  the  sheet 
is  lapped  it  is  practically  welded.  The  same  gas- 
tight  workmanship  is  maintained  in  the  extra  rad- 
iating drum  and  in  the  furnace  throughout.  Gas 
cannot  get  through  the  heating  surface  at  any 
point.  The  material  used  is  of  the  best  quality  low- 
carbcn,  steel  plate,  a  metal  that  is  uniform  in  tex- 
ture and  composition,  and  anti-corrosive,  ductile, 
and  possessed  of  a  tensile  strength  of  60,000 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  In  a  cold  state  it  may 
be  worked  almost  as  copper  plate  may  be,  it  may 
be  flanged,  double-seamed,  twisted,  drawn  out, 
doubled  up,  and  welded  and  the  process  may  be 
continually  repeated.  A  piece  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  thick  may  be  drawn  as  thin  as  a  piece  of  writ- 
ing paper  without  cracking  or  checking.  Con- 
taining less  than  one-fourth  of  one  per  cent,  of 
carbon,  mild  in  quality  and  homogenous  in  struc- 
ture, it  is  absolutely  impermeable  to*  gases,  and 
having  a  uniform  expansive  quality  throughout 
its  entire  mass,  it  has  neither  fibre  to  tear  nor  sand 
to  drop,  a,s  is  the  case  in  cast  metals. 

It  may  be  said  of  the  ordinary  furnace  that  fuel 


FURNACE  HEATING 


135 


is  put  in  at  the  door  and  heat  let  out  at  the  smoke 
hole— let  out  either  as  soot  and  gases  that  have  not 


Fig.    79. 


"been  ignited,  or  as  heat  that  must  be  wasted 
through  the  flue,  because  efforts  to  retain  it  would 


136  FURNACE  HEATING 

cause  a  choking  of  the  smoke-passage.  In  other 
words,  it  has  a  practically  direct  draft  because  of 
its  imperfect  system  of  fuel  combustion. 

This  is  really  a  double  furnace.  Combustion 
takes  place  in  the  first,  or  fire  drum,  which  in  it- 
self possesses  a  very  great  radiating  surface. 
From  this,  before  reaching  the  smoke  outlet,  the 
products  of  combustion  have  to  enter  and  travel  a 
long  distance  through  the  second  drum.  This 
drum,  by  actual  measurement,  contains  more  heat- 
ing surface  than  some  of  the  heaters  upon  the  mar- 
ket contain  altogether.  This  supplementary  drum 
is  made  in  two  forms — crescent  shape  and  round, 
the  latter  with  an  open  center.  The  course  of  the 
products  of  combustion  being  such  that  heat  is 
brought  directly  against  every  part  of  the  inside 
of  the  surface,  while  the  air  passes  against  every 
part  of  the  outside-,  so  that  there  is  not  only  long 
retention  of  the  heat  inside,  but  an  effective  use 
of  it  by  contact  with  the  air  from  the  outside.  A 
question  always  arising  in  the  mind  that  whether 
or  not,  with  such  a,  long  and  indirect  passage  way, 
there  will  not  be  choking  or  clogging.  There  will 
not  be.  Herein  is  where  the  effective  combustion 
is  demonstrated.  With  a  good  smoke  flue  and  with 
ordinary  good  care,  this  drum  will  not  require 
cleaning  oftener  than  once  a  year.  More  than  this, 
the  heating  surface  will  remain  practically  free 
from  soot-coating,  so  that  it  is  always  effective  for 
Service. 


FURNACE  HEATING  137 

Fig.  80  is  a  partial  sectional  elevation  of  the  fur- 
nace previously  described,  while  Fig  81  shows 


Pig.  80. 


the  same  furnace  with  a  water  heating  device 
which  forms  a  portion  of  the  fire  pot  as  shown. 


138 


FURNACE  HEATING 


The  water-back  itself  is  shown  in  Fig.  82.    An  en- 
cased type  of  furnace  with  additional  drum  also 


Fig.    81. 


built  in  with  the  furnace  proper  is  shown  in  Fig. 
83.  A  water  tank  for  furnishing  hot  water  is  also 


FURNACE  HEATING 


139 


provided  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  Check 
draft  dampers  for  controlling  the  temperature  of 
the  furnace  are  shown  in  Fig.  84. 

General  instructions.  To  obtain  proper  results 
and  to  convey  all  the  warm  air  that  a  furnace  may 
produce,  to  the  rooms  to  be  heated,  the  following 
rules  should  be  observed: 


Pig.  82. 

Put  in  a  furnace  of  sufficient  capacity. 

See  that  the  chimney  is  of  proper  size  and  has 
good  draught. 

If  possible  set  the  furnace  under  the  center  of* 
the  house,  so  as  to  equalize  the  length  of  the  hot 
air  pipes. 


140 


FURNACE  HEATING 


Hot  air  pipes  should  be  of  the  proper  size,  with 
a  good  elevation  from  the  furnace  to  the  register, 
avoiding  long  runs  and  abrupt  turns. 


Fig.  83, 


The  cold  air  pipe,  if  taken  from  the  living  room, 
should  be  at  least  85  per  cent  of  the  combined 
area  of  all  the  hot  air  pipes. 

All  holes  or  openings  in  the  foundation  must  be 
closed  to  prevent  the  hot  air  from  being  chilled. 


FURNACE  HEATING  141 

Good  workmanship  and  practical  application  of 
the  same  always  insures  good  results. 
Proper  Size  of  the  Furnace.    Some  furnaces  are 


Fig.  84. 


rated  far  above  the  amount  of  their  actual  heating 
capacities.  Combining  this  with  the  fact  that  some 
dealers  expect  to  sell  a  consumer  only  one  furnace, 


142  FURNACE  HEATING 

and  therefore  consider  only  the  first  profit  and  pay 
little  attention  to  results,  has  led  to  the  general  de- 
mand of  the  prospective  buyer  to  ask  for  a  fur- 
nace of  one  or  two  sizes  larger  than  the  one  figured 
on. 

The  table  of  capacities  of  furnaces  are  based  on 
scientific  figures  and  years  of  actual  test  and  ex- 
perience. Under  reasonable  conditions  a  furnace 
selected  according  to  this  rating  will  heat  the 
building  to  the  proper  temperature. 

Proper  Size  of  the  Chimney.  The  chimney 
should  start  from  the  floor  of  the  cellar  so  as  to 
allow  for  a  clean  out  underneath  the  smoke  pipe. 
It  should  continue  in  a  straight  line  to  at  least  2 
feet  above  the  highest  point  of  the  roof,  if  neces- 
sary to  offset,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  contract 
the  size,  a  10  inch  -round  or  an  8  by  12  inch  square 
is  a  good  flue  for  almost  any  size  of  furnace.  For 
a  small  furnace  a  straight  chimney,  with  an  8  by 
8  inch  flue  will  answer  the  purpose. 

A  chimney  4  inches  wide  will  seldom  give  sat- 
isfaction. As  a  great  deal  depends  on  a  good  chim- 
ney, this  very  important  feature  should  never  be 
overlooked. 

Location  of  the  Furnace.  There  may  be  condi 
tions  that  make  it  impractical  to  set  the  furnace 
under  the  center  of  the  house,  but  the  best  results 
are  always  obtained  when  it  is  possible  to  do  so. 
If  it  be  necessary  to  set  the  furnace  toward  one 
end  of  building,  it  is  best  to  favor  the  north 


FTJKNACE  HEATING  143 

and  west.  Drainage  conditions  often  govern  the 
depth  of  cellar.  If  possible  it  should  be  at  least  7 
feet  under  the  joists. 

Hot  Air  Pipes.  There  is  no  rule  that  would  ap- 
ply to  the  size  of  the  pipe  for  certain  rooms.  The 
location  of  the  furnace,  the  length  of  the  pipes  and 
the  exposure  of  the  rooms,  also  their  use  must  be 
taken  into  consideration.  Ordinarily  8  and  9  inch 
pipes  are  large  enough  for  all  second  and  third 
floor  rooms.  For  first  floor  rooms,  a  reception  hall 
with  open  stairway  to  second  floor,  a  12  inch  pipe 
is  the  best  adapted,  but  10  inch  may  answer  the 
purpose  in  most  cases.  For  parlor,  dining  and  sit- 
ting rooms  of  about  12  by  16  feet  or  14  by  15  feet 
a  10  inch  pipe  will  give  good  results,  8  and  9  inch 
should  be  used  for  bed  rooms.  If  possible,  avoid 
any  bends  or  turns  except  an  elbow  at  the  furnace 
and  another  where  it  enters  the  register  box  or 
boot.  A  damper  should  be  put  in  every  hot  air 
pipe  close  to  surface. 

All  hot  air  pipes  in  the  cellar  should  be  covered 
with  asbestos.  This  insures  better  heating,  pre- 
serves the  pipes  and  makes  them  absolutely  safe. 

Partition  Pipes.  Use  of  double  pipes  is  advo- 
cated as  the  flow  of  air  through  them  is  better 
than  if  single  pipes  are  used.  The  reason  for  this 
is  that  with  the  patented  double  pipes,  the  inside 
pipe  has  a  straight,  smooth  surface,  it  does  not 
buckle  or  warp,  thereby  reducing  its  size,  but  al- 
ways retains  an  even  and  unobstructed  passage 


144  FURNACE  HEATING 

from  the  boot  at  the  bottom  to  the  register  head 
or  top. 

The  outside  pipe  prevents  the  inner  one  from  be- 
coming chilled,  and  also  prevents  any  danger  of 
setting  fire  to  the  woodwork  by  becoming  over- 
heated. 

Cold  Air.  This  is  a,  very  important  feature,  as 
an  insufficient  supply  of  cold  air  to  the  furnace 
means  a  lack  of  warm  air  in  the  house.  There  are 
different  opinions  as  to  the  proper  pla.ce  to  take 
cold  air  from,  whether  from  the  outside,  from  the 
living  rooms,  or  from  the  cellar.  If  taken  from  the 
outside,  the  expansion  of  air  is  greater  than  if 
taken  from  the  house.  A  smaller  pipe  can  be  used, 
and  therefore  costs  less  to  install.  The  outside  air 
being  often  very  cold,  it  requires  heavy  firing  to 
heat  it  to  the  required  temperature.  "With  good 
firing  satisfactory  results  can  be  obtained,  but 
with  a  low  fire  cold  air  may  be  admitted  into  the 
house  without  being  properly  warmed. 

By  taking  air  from  the  living  rooms,  the  house 
can  be  heated  at  a  minimum  cost  of  fuel,  the  ex- 
pense of  installation  is  slightly  higher,  as  it  re- 
quires a  larger  pipe,  also  register  faces  and  other 
fittings  to  connect  the  furnace.  By  using  this  meth- 
od, either  one  or  more  pipes  can  be  used.  The 
area,  of  this  pipe  or  pipes  should  never  be  less  than 
85  per  cent  of  thtj  combined  area  of  all  the  hot 
air  pipes. 

The  best  general  results  are  obtained  in  this 


FURNACE  HEATING 


145 


way,  for  there  is  always  a  circulation,  the  air  is 
taken  out  of  the  rooms,  passed  over  the  heated 
surfa.ee  of  the  furnace,  and  warmed  to  the  proper 
temperature. 

There  is  only  one  item  in  favor  of  using  cellar 
air,  this  is  the  expense  of  installation,  as  it  costs 
very  little  to  make  the  connection— in  all  other  re- 
spects it  is  not  advisable  to  use  it. 

Openings  in  Foundation.  Great  care  should  he 
exercised  to  see  that  all  openings  in  the  basement 
or  foundation  walls  are  properly  closed  during  the 
cold  season,  as  a  current  of  cold  air  against  any 
hot  air  pipes,  acts  as  a  damper  to  the  proper  flow 
of  air  through  them. 

Good  Workmanship.  Much  depends  upon  a 
furnace  being  properly  installed;  it  is  often  said 
that  a,  poor  furnace  properly  installed  will  give 
better  satisfaction  than  a  good  furnace  poorly  put 
in. 


DIMENSIONS  AND  HEATING  CAPACITIES  OF  FURNACES. 

No. 

Height. 

Diara. 

Height 
of  Ra- 
idator. 

Height 
of  Cast- 
ing. 

Diam. 
of  Cast- 
ing. 

Weight 

Heating  Capacity. 

Ft,    In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.    In. 

Ft.  In. 

Cubic  Feet. 

24 

4—6 

2—0 

2—0 

4—11 

4—2 

1200 

9000  to  80000 

28 

4—10 

2—4 

2—4 

5—2 

4—4 

1250 

12000  to  25000 

30 

5—0 

2—6 

2—6 

5—7 

4—8 

1450 

20000  to  35000 

33 

5—0 

2—9 

2—9 

5—7 

5—0 

1750 

30000  to  50000 

36 

5—2 

3—0 

3—0 

5—8 

5—8 

1950 

60000  to  80000 

146 


FURNACE  HEATING 


THE  Loss  OF  HEAT  BY  TRANSMISSION  WITH  A  DIFFERENCE 

OF  70  DEGREES  FAHRENHEIT  BETWEEN  THE  INDOOR 

AND  THE  OUTSIDE  TEMPERATURE. 

The  loss  in  heat  units  per  square  foot  per  hour  by  trans- 
missior:  for: 


8-inch  brick  wall. 
12-inch  brick  wall. 
16-inch  brick  wall. 
20-inch  brick  wall. 
24-inch  brick  wall. 
Single  window. 
Ceiling  (unheated  attic). 
Floor  (unheated  basement). 


32 

22 
18 
16 

n 

85 
5 
4 


WIND  VELOCITY. 

Wind. 

Feet  per  Minute. 

Miles  per  Hour. 

Scarcely  appreciable 
Very  feeble 
Feeble 

90 
180 
360 

1.02 
2.04 
4.1 

Brisk 

1080 

12.3 

Very  brisk 
High 
Very  high 
Violent 

1800 
2700 
3600 
4200  to  5400 

20.4 
30.7 
40.1 
47.8  to  61.4 

Hurricane 

6000 

68.1 

The  United  States  Weather  Bureau  defines  a  gale  as  a  wind 
blowing  40  miles  per  hour. 


FURNACE  HEATING 


147 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  PROPER  SIZE  OF  FURNACE  PIPES 

TO  HEAT  ROOMS  OF  VARIOUS  DIMENSIONS  WHEN 

Two  SIDES  ARE  EXPOSED. 

Temperature  at  Register  140  degrees,  Room  70  degrees, 

Outside  0  degrees.     Rooms  8  to  17  Feet  in  Width  Assumed 

to  be  9  Feet  High.    Rooms  18  to  20  Feet  in  Width  Assumed 

to  be  10  Feet  High.     For  Other  Heights,  Temperatures  or 

Exposures  Make  a  Suitable  Allowance.     When  First-Floor 

Pipes  are  longer  than  15  feet  use  one   size  larger  than 

that  stated. 

Length  of  Room. 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

9 

9 

9 

7 

7 

7 

7 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

9 

9 

9 

9 

in 

7 

7 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

. 

8 

8 

9 

9 

9 

9 

10 

s 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

£ 

9 

9 

9 

9 

10 

10 

.t  t 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

0 

12 

9 

9 

10 

10 

10 

+3 

8 

8 

8 

9 

§ 

13 

10 

10 

10 

19 

14 

8 
10 

q 
10 

9 
10 

15 

10  9 

9 
11 

16 

9 
11 

One  12-inch  pipe 
One  13-inch  pipe 
One  14-inch  pipe 
One  15-inch  pipe 
One  16-inch  pipe 
One  17-inch  pipe 


two  9-inch  pipes, 
two  10-inch  pipes, 
two  11-inch  pipes, 
two  12-inch  pipes, 
two  12-inch  pipes, 
two  13-inch  pipes. 


148 


FURNACE  HEATING 


In  the  space  opposite  the  numbers  indicating  tne  length 
and  width  of  room,  the  lower  number  shows  the  size  pipe  for 
the  first  floor,  the  upper  number  the  size  pipe  for  second  floor. 

For  third  floor  use  one  size  smaller  than  for  second  floor. 

For  rooms  with  three  exposures  increase  pipe  given  in  table 
in  proportion  to  exposure. 

For  halls  use  pipe  of  ample  size  to  allow  for  loss  of  heat  to 
second  floor. 


THE 

APPROXIMATE  VELOCITY  OF  AIR  IN  FLUES  OF 

VARIOUS  HEIGHTS. 

Outside 

temperature  32  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Allowance 

for  friction  50 

per  cent,  in  flue  one  square  foot  in  area. 

Excess  of  temperature  of  air  in  the  flue  over  that  out  doors 

Height 

of  flue 
in  Feet. 

10° 

20° 

30° 

40° 

50° 

60° 

70° 

80° 

90° 

100* 

120° 

140° 

Velocity  of  air  in  feet  per  minute. 

5 

77 

111 

136 

159 

179 

199 

216 

234 

250 

266 

296 

325 

10 

109 

156 

192 

226 

254 

281 

306 

330 

354 

376 

418 

460 

15 

133 

192 

236 

275 

312 

344 

376 

405 

432 

461 

513 

565 

20 

154 

221 

273 

319 

359 

398 

434 

467 

500 

532 

592 

650 

25 

173 

248 

305 

357 

402 

445 

485 

522 

560 

595 

660 

728 

30 

189 

271 

334 

390 

440 

487 

530 

572 

612 

652 

725 

798 

35 

204 

293 

360 

423 

475 

527 

574 

620 

662 

705 

783 

862 

40 

218 

311 

386 

452 

508 

562 

612  662 

707 

753 

836 

920 

45 

231 

332 

408 

478 

538 

597 

650  700 

750 

800 

887 

977 

50 

244 

350 

432 

503 

568 

630 

685  740 

790 

843 

935 

1030 

60 

267 

383 

473 

552 

622 

690 

750'  810 

865 

923 

1023 

1125 

70 

289 

413 

510 

596 

671 

746 

810  875 

935 

995 

1105 

1215 

80 

308443 

545 

638 

717 

795867!  9*5 

1000 

1065 

1182 

1300 

90 

327 

470  578 

678 

762 

845|^20  990 

1060  1130 

1252 

1330 

100 

345 

495 

610 

713 

802 

890  970  1045 

1118  1190 

1323 

1455 

I 

^>he  volume  of  air  in  cubic  feet  per  minute  dis- 
charged by  a  flue  equals  the  velocity  in  feet  per 
iainute  multiplied  by  the  area  in  square  feet. 


FURNACE   HEATING 


149 


Knowing  any  two  of  these  terms,  the  third  may  be 

readily  found. 

volume  volume 

Velocity  =  —  Area  =  - 

area.  velocity. 

Example. — Find  the  area  of  a  flue  20  feet  high 
that  will  discharge  3,000  cubic  feet  per  minute, 
when  the  excess  of  temperature  in  the  flue  over 
that  out  doors  is  40  degrees. 

Opposite  20  in  left  hand  column  and  under  40 
on  upper  line  is  the  number  319,  representing  the 
velocity  in  feet  per  minute.  The  volume  3,000-r-319 
=  9.4  square  feet,  the  required  area.  In  estimating 
the  effective  height  of  a  warm  air  flue  from  a  fur- 
nace, consider  the  flue  to  begin  2  feet  above  the 
grate. 


THE  CAPACITY  OF  FURNACES  TO  MAINTAIN  AN  INSIDE 
TEMPERATURE  OF  70  DEGREES  WITH  AN  OUTSIDE 
TEMPERATURE  OF  0  DEGREES. 

Temperature  of  entering  air,  140  degrees.     Kate  ot  coin 
bustion,  5  pounds          ^al  per  square  foot  of  grate  surface 
per  hour. 

Average  diameter  of 
Ire  pot  iu  inches. 

Corresponding  arer 
in  square  feet 

Total  exposu  i  e  in  square 
i'eet  to  which  furnace 
j$  adapted. 

18 
20 
22 
24 
26 
28 
30 
30 

1.77 
2.18 
2.64 

3.14 
3.69 
4  27 
4  01 
f.5P 

1,110 
1,370 
1,655 
1,970 
2,310 
2,680 
3,080 
3,500 

STEAM  AND  GAS  FITTING. 

The  Expansion  of  Wrought-Iron  Steam  and 
Water  Pipes.  To  calculate  the  amount  of  expan- 
sion in  the  length  of  pipes,  with  different  tempera- 
tures, take  a  pipe  100  feet  long,  containing  cold 
water,  or  without  either  steam  or  water,  and  being 
at  a  temperature  of  about  32  degrees  Fahrenheit. 
After  heating  the  water  in  the  pipe  to  215  degrees, 
or  1  pound  pressure  of  steam,  the  pipe  will  be 
found  to  be  100  feet  1%  inches  in  length,  with  a 
rise  in  temperature  from  32  degrees  to  265  degrees, 
or  25  pounds  pressure  of  steam,  there  will  be  an  in- 
crease in  length  of  1  8/10  inches.  From  32  degrees 
to  297  degrees,  or  50  pounds  steam  pressure,  the 
increase  would  be  2  1/10  inches.  And  again,  a,  rise 
in  temperature  from  32  degrees  to  338  degrees,  or 
100  pounds  pressure  of  steam,  will  give  an  increase 
in  length  of  2%  inches. 

Wrought  Iron  Pipe.  Wrought  iron  pipe  is  now 
almost  exclusively  used  in  heating  plants.  It  is 
made  at  a  number  of  factories,  and  being  of  stan- 
dard sizes,  pipe  bought  from  different  factories 
will  be  found  to  fit  the  same  size  of  fittings. 

It  is  manufactured  from  wrought  iron  of  the 
proper  gauge,  which  is  rolled  into  the  shape  of  the 
pipe  and  raised  to  a  welding  heat,  after  which  the 

150 


STEAM  AND  GAS  FITTING  151 

edges  are  welded,  by  being  drawn  through  a  die. 
The  small  sizes  of  pipe  up  to  l1^  inches  are  butt 
welded  and  1%  inches  and  larger  sizes  are  lap 
welded. 


Fig.   85. 


Fittings.    Pipe  fittings  can  be  bought  from  the 
regular  supply  houses. 


Fig.    86. 


Fittings  are  mostly  of  cast  and  malleable  iron, 
except  straight  couplings,  which  are  usually  of 
wrought  iron.  Elbows,  tees  and  other  fittings, 


152 


STEAM  AND   GAS   FITTING 


which  can  be  procured  of  cast  iron,  are  the  best  to 
use,  owing  to  the  fact  that  being  of  a  harder  metal 
than  the  pipe,  and  less  elastic,  they  will  not  yield 


Fig.  87. 


sufficiently  to  cause  leakage  when  connections  are 
made.  All  fittings  should  be  closely  examined  for 
flaws  before  screwing  on  to  the  pipe. 


Fig.   88. 


Standard  cast  iron  fittings  for  use  in  installing 
steam  and  hot  water  heating  plants  are  shown  in 
Figs.  85,  86,  87  and  88. 

Pipe  Bends.    The  radius  of  any  bend  should  not 


STEAM  AND   GAS  FITTING 


153 


be  less  than  5  diameters  of  tlie  pipe  and  a  larger 
radius    is    much    preferable.    The   length    X    of 


QUARTER  BENDS 


U   BENDS 


OFFSET  BENDS 

Fig.    89. 

straight  pipe  shown  in  Fig.  89  at  each  end  of 
bend  should  be  not  less  than  as  follows: 

inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 


21/2-mch  Pipe  X=4 

3  -inch  Pipe  X=4 
3%-inch  Pipe  X=5 

4  -inch  Pipe  X=5 
4%-inch  Pipe  X=6 
3    -inch  Pipe  X=6 


154 


STEAM  AND  GAS  FITTING 


6  -inch  Pipe  X=7  inches, 

7-inch  Pipe  X=8  inches, 

8 -inch  Pipe  X— 9  inches, 
10-inch  Pipe  X— 12  inches, 
12-inch  Pipe  X— 14  inches, 
14-inch  Pipe  X— 16  inches, 
15-inch  Pipe  X=16  inches, 
16-inch  Pipe  X— 20  inches, 
18-inch  Pipe  X=22  inches. 

Pipe  Machines.  The  illustrations  in  Fig.  90 
show  two  portable  pipe-threading  machines  which 
are  compact,  moderate  in  cost,  and  efficient.  For 


Pig.   90. 


the  larger  sizes  of  pipe,  covering  a  range  of  from 
2%  to  4  inches  they  will  be  found  time-saving  and 
convenient  devices. 

Tools.  The  tools  shown  in  Figs.  91  and  92  will 
be  found  sufficient  to  meet  the  ordinary  require- 
ments for  installing  a  steam  or  hot-water  heating 


STEAM  AND   GAS  FITTING  155 


Fig.  91. 


156  STEAM  AND  GAS  FITTING 


Fig.  82. 


STEAM  AND  GAS  FITTING 


157 


plant  of  ordinary  size.  The  mains  of  larger  size 
than  2  inches  may  be  ordered  cut  to  measurement. 
The  contractor  should  provide  himself  with  two 
pipe  vises  as  shown  in  Fig.  93,  having  a  range 
of  capacity  from  2%  up  to  4  inches  inclusive.  Such 
machines  can  be  purchased  at  a  very  moderate 
cost. 


Fig. 


Gas  Fitting.  While  electricity  is  making  won- 
derful progress  and  particularly  for  lighting,  still 
gas  holds  its  own  for  domestic  purposes.  Illumin- 
ating gas  is  not  entirely  perfect,  but  when  it  is 
properly  made,  carefully  delivered  to  the  building 
and  there  properly  handled,  the  results  are  so  sat- 
isfactory that  some  time  will  elapse  before  any- 
thing else  will  take  its  place.  The  average  house 


158  STEAM  AND   GAS  FITTING 

is  fitted  for  the  use  of  gas,  and  the  field  of  discov- 
ery in  the  use  of  gas  for  domestic  purposes  ap- 
pears to  be  as  great  as  that  of  electricity. 

Gas  Supply  Pipe.  The  gas  supply  pipe  should 
be  connected  to  the  main  in  the  best  possible  man- 
ner. The  pipe  should  be  wrought  iron,  with  fit- 
tings, if  any,  of  malleable  or  wrought  iron.  Cast- 
iron  fittings  should  not  be  used  as  they  crack  eas- 
ily. The  service  pipe  should  be  laid  with  an  in- 
cline to  the  main  in  the  street,  as  the  earth  which 
surrounds  the  pipe  being  cold  causes  some  of  the 
gas  to  condense  and  become  liquid.  With  a  fall  in 
the  supply  pipe  to  the  street  the  condensation  can 
therefore  flow  back  into  the  main  pipe. 

With  the  supply  pipe  laid  in  this  way  there  will 
be  no  flickering  of  the  gas  or  any  unsteady  pres- 
sure. 

The  gas  supply  pipe  from  the  street  main  should 
never  be  less  than  one-inch  pipe.  The  meter  con- 
nection pipes  should  always  be  of  one  size  larger 
than  the  meter  couplings.  All  drops  should  be  not 
less  than  %-inch  pipe. 

Street  Supply  Pipe.  It  is  necessary  to  have  the 
house  supply  pipe  rest  on  a  solid  foundation.  It 
often  happens  that  in  excavating  the  trench  for 
the  supply  pipe  it  is  dug  too  deep,  or  it  may  be 
dug  level,  and  as  the  pipe  must  be  pitched  back  to 
the  main,  it  will  have  to  be  blocked  up.  Do  not 
block  up  a  supply  pipe  on  filled-in  earth.  Start 
the  blocking  from  the  bottom  of  the  trench  or  from 


STEAM  AND   GAS   FITTING  159 

the  lowest  excavated  part.  There  is  no  special 
amount  of  pitch  required  for  such  pipes  as  the 
more  pitch  they  have  the  less  liability  they  will 
have  to  form  a  water  trap.  After  the  pipe  is  all 
laid,  properly  graded  and  blocked,  test  the  pipe, 
for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  if  there  are  any 
leaks,  before  the  pipe  is  covered  up.  The  pipe  be- 
ing found  perfectly  gas  tight,  the  trench  can  now 
be  filled  up.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  remain  on  the 
ground  and  superintend  the  work  of  properly  fill- 
ing the  ditch  as  the  average  laborer  who  is  en- 
gaged to  do  the  filling  of  such  ditches  has  not  suf- 
ficient knowledge  of  the  work  to  handle  the  pipe 
with  the  necessary  care.  It  is  not  an  unusual  thing 
to  find  the  gas  supply  pipe  leaking  badly,  after 
being  covered  over,  by  allowing  heavy  stones  to 
fall  into  the  ditch  by  carelessness  on  the  part  of 
the  laborers. 

Frost  in  Pipes.  The  flow  of  gas  is  retarded  by 
frost  even  where  the  supply  pipe  has  sufficient 
pitch,  if  it  be  in  too  cold  a  place  and  not  properly 
protected  from  the  cold.  This  occurs  generally  in 
the  main  supply  pipe  where  it  passes  under  the 
sidewalk,  and  as  a  large  amount  of  gas  passes 
through  the  supply  pipe,  a,  large  amount  of  mois- 
ture comes  with  the  gas.  It  is  this  moisture  which 
freezes  to  the  sides  of  the  pipe,  like  heavy  frost  on 
a  window,  but  much  coarser,  and  looks  very  much 
like  coarse  salt.  It  will  keep  on  accumulating, 
gradually  filling  up  the  pipe  toward  the  center 


160  STEAM  AND   GAS   FITTING 

from  all  sides,  until  the  pipe  is  entirely  filled  and 
the  flow  of  gas  arrested. 

To  remedy  this  difficulty  the  pipe  should 
be  covered  with  some  felt  or  other  material, 
dry  sawdust  may  be  also  used  and  placed  in  a  box 
around  the  pipe.  By  striking  the  pipe  a  sharp  blow 
with  a  hammer  the  frost  will  fall  from  the  sides  of 
the  pipe  and  lie  at  the  bottom  of  the  pipe.  This 
does  not  clear  the  pipe  entirely,  but  will  allow  the 
gas  to  flow  through  the  upper  part  of  the  pipe. 
This  frost  cannot  be  blown  back  into  the  main  and 
to  clear  the  frost  out  entirely  alcohol  must  be 
poured  into  the  pipe  at  the  meter  connection,  a 
half  pint  or  more,  which  will  melt  the  frost  and 
carry  the  water  which  is  formed  into  the  main. 

Fittings.  Gas  fittings  should  be  of  malleable 
iron  in  preference  to  cast  iron  as  they  are  lighter 
and  neater  in  appearance,  besides  being  much 
stronger.  Standard  fittings  for  use  in  gas  lighting 
work  are  shown  in  Figs.  94,  95  and  96.  Union  el- 
bows and  tees  are  shown  in  Fig.  97  and  gas  service 
cocks  in  Fig.  98. 

Connecting  a  Meter.  The  gas  pipes  in  the  build- 
ing, as  well  as  the  supply  pipe  from  the  street, 
should  be  tested  before  the  meter  is  connected,  to 
avoid  the  possibility  of  damaging  the  meter  by 
any  sudden  pressure.  The  supply  pipes  should 
also  be  blown  out  so  that  the  liability  of  dirt  being 
carried  into  the  meter  by  the  gas  will  be  obviated. 

After  connecting  the  meter  care  should  be  taken 


STEAM  AND   GAS  FITTING 


161 


to  turn  on  the  gas  slowly  until  tlie  pressure  has 
had  a  chance  to  equalize  on  the  distributing  side. 
This  prevents  a  sudden  strain  on  the  meter.  A 
meter  should  not  be  set  in  a  place  warmer  than  100 
or  colder  than  40  degrees  Fahrenheit,  as  the  oil  in 


Fig.   94. 

the  meter  diaphragms  is  very  susceptible  to  heat 
or  cold. 

Reading  a  Meter.  One  complete  revolution  of  a 
hand  registers  the  number  of  cubic  feet  marked 
above  the  dial. 


162 


STEAM  AND   GAS  FITTING 


STREET    ELBOWS 


ELBOWS 


DROP  ELBOWS 


WALL   PLATES 


DROP  TEES 


CHANDELIER  HOOKS 


FOUR-WAY  TEES 


CROSS  OVERS 


REDUCING 
COUPLINGS 


EXTENSION   PIECES 


STEAM  AND  GAS  FITTING 


163 


STEAM  AND  GAS  FITTINGS 

ELBOWS 
CAST    IRON 

STRAIGHT 

REDUCING    ELBOWS 
CAST   IRON 


45<>    ELBOWS 
CAST   IRON 


ECCENTRIC 
TEES 

CAST   IRON 


REDUCING    TEES 
CAST   IRON 


164 


STEAM  AND  GAS  FITTING 


WITH    FEMALE    UNION 


WITH    MALE    UNION 


WITH    FEMALE   UNION 


FiK.  97. 


WITH    MALC    UNION 


Put  down  the  figures  on  each  dial,  that  the  hand 
has  just  passed,  and  add  two  ciphers.    The  num- 


her  obtained  will  be  the  amount  of  gas  in  cubic 
feet  that  the  meter  has  measure.  From  this  amount 


STKAM    ANI>    <IAS    KITTING  165 

suhlrad  the  lasl  reading  of  the  meter  and  1  ho  re- 
sult is  the  amount  of  gn&  consumed  in  the  inter- 


A  lv|x'  of  iiiclcr  and  one  of  the  most  used  is 
shown  in  Kig.  iij^  an(l  (he  (|i;il  |»lalr  of  a  gas 
nu'lcr  in  l^i.  100. 


Blow-torch.    In  working  around  ^as  fixtures 

thai  arc  in  place,  ihc  o-;1s  fitter  should  he  very  care- 
ful ahoul  (he  walls  and  ceilings  and  noi  hlacKcn 
Ilicin  \\ilh  Ihc  hlow-toivli  in  ca,se  he  has  jo  heal  a 
joinl  f<n  ihc  purpose  of  connecting.  Proper  tools 
should  be  at  hand  to  do  this  work  with,  and  in 


166 


STEAM  AND   GAS   FITTING 


place  of  using  gasoline  or  some  other  kind  of  oil 
in  the  torch,  the  best  kind  of  alcohol  should  be 


HOW  TO  READ 

ti^to 


A  GAS  METER, 


\-___RCAD     FROM 


T    TO     RIGHT.       > 


Fig.  100. 


used,  so  that  there  will  be  no-  smoke  from  it  to 
dirty  the  walls  or  ceiling.    Fig.  101  shows  a  gas 


Pig.  101. 


fitter's  blow- torch,  made  in  the  best  possible  man- 
ner and  adapted  for  many  purposes. 


STEAM  AND  GAS  FITTING 


167 


Mantle   Lamp.    The  mantle  lamps   of  which 
there  are  a  great  many  different  varieties,  resem- 


PiK.  102. 


ble  somewhat  the  old-fashioned  round  or  Argand 
type  of  burner,  but  the  manner  in  which  the  light 
is  produced  is  entirely  different  in  the  mantle 


168  STEAM  AND  GAS  FITTING 

lamp.  The  light  produced  by  this  lamp  does  not 
come  from  the  flame  itself,  as  in  the  case  of  an  or- 
dinary gas  burner,  but  from  the  mantle,  and  is  due 
to  the  intense  heat  to  which  it  is  subject  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  Bunsen  flame  within  the  lower  end  of 
the  mantle.  Fig.  102  shows  one  form  of  a  mantle 
lamp. 

In  transferring  a  mantle  from  iis  box  to  the 
burner,  take  the  two  ends  of  the  string  in  one 
hand  and  lift  the  mantle  out  of  the  paper  tube. 
By  holding  the  top  part  of  the  burner  in  the  other 
hand  and  below  the  mantle,  the  latter  can  safely 
be  lowered  into  position.  Before  fixing  the  chim- 
ney examine  the  mantle,  as  a  faulty  one  will  be 
exchanged  by  the  dealer  if  returned  before  being 
lit.  A  mantle  is  made  up  of  a,  regular  series  of 
loops,  each  row  connected  to  the  one  above,  and  if 
at  any  point  a  loop  does  not  join  the  row*  above, 
the  mantle  should  be  returned  as  faulty,  as  it  is 
almost  certain  to  develop  a  break  as  soon  as  used. 
Other  faults,  such  as  broken  collars,  broken  sus- 
pending loops,  fractured  sides,  and  torn  bottoms, 
are  noticeable  at  a  glance 

-  When  lighting  incandescent  burners,  the  light 
should  be  applied  from  underneath  the  chimney, 
but  above  the  screen  which  prevents  lighting 
back.  Some  prefer  to  light  from  the  top  of  the 
chimney,  in  which  case  the  gas  should  be  turned 
on  sufficient  time  before  the  light  is  applied  to 
allow  the  gas  to  expel  all  the  air  in  the  chimney, 


STEAM  AND  GAB  FITTING  169 

so  that  little  or  no  explosion  shall  take  place,  and 
the  mantle  may  be  free  from  consequent  damage. 

The  breakage  of  mantles  when  in  position  may 
be  avoided  by  attention  to  a,  few  rules.  Fix  in- 
candescent burners  only  on  good  sound  and  clear 
gas  fittings.  Where  there  is  much  vibration,  use 
one  of  the  anti-vibration  frames  now  on  the  mar- 
ket, these  frames  are  specially  suitable  for  hang- 
ing lights,  such  as  the  arc  lamps,  etc.  All  pend- 
ants for  the  incandescent  light  should  be  supplied 
with  loose  joints,  and  they  should  never  be 
screwed  stiff,  or  the  mantle  will  break  if  it  gets 
the1  slightest  knock.  In  draughty  places,  such  as 
lobbies,  passages,  and  corridors,  a  mica  chimney 
is  desirable,  so  as  to  avoid  breakage  of  the  chim- 
ney, and  to  preserve  the  mantle. 

If  a  newly  fixed  burner  gives  an  unsatisfactory 
light,  either  there  may  be  an  insufficient  gas  sup- 
ply, or  the  mantle  may  be  much  too  wide,  perhaps 
both  conditions  exist.  In  the  first  case  the  mantle 
will  be  well  lit  all  round  the  bottom  with  the  light, 
getting  worse  towards  the  top.  If  two  of  the  four 
air-holes  in  the  Bunsen  tube  are  covered  by  the 
fingers,  the  light  will  at  once  improve.  Therefore, 
either  reduce  the  amount  of  air  admitted,  or  in- 
crease the  quantity  of  gas  supplied.  To  reduce 
the  amount  of  air,  unscrew  the  Bunsen  tube  and 
fix  inside  it  a  piece  of  card  or  tin  to  cover  two 
opposite  holes.  To  increase  the  gas  supply,  re- 
move the  burner  from  the  fittings,  and  unscrew 


170  STEAM  AND  GAS  FITTING 

the  Bunsen  tube,  when  the  gas  regulator  nipple 
will  be  seen  to  consist  of  a  brass  tube  having  a 
metal  top  with  small  holes,  which  should  be  very 
slightly  enlarged.  Very  handy  for  this  purpose 
is  a  hat-pin,  ground  to  a  long  taper  and  passed  up 
from  the  under  side.  When  a  mantle  is  too  wide, 
one  side  only  is  incandescent,  the  other  side  hang- 
ing away  from  the  gas  ring.  This  fault  is,  of 
course,  easily  seen  before  the  burner  is  used,  if, 
however,  the  mantle  ha,s  been  lit,  the  light  can  be 
improved  by  slightly  lowering  the  mantle  and,  as 
this  is  tapered,  presenting  a  smaller  surface  to 
the  flame.  Take  off  the  mantle,  lifting  it  by  a  wire 
under  the  suspending  loop.  Then  place  fie  wire 
across  a  glass  tumbler  with  the  mantle  suspended 
inside.  Take  out  the  support,  nick  it  with  a  file 
about  %  inch  from  the  plain  end,  and  break  it  off, 
then  replace  the  mantle. 

It  is  noticed  that  the  brilliant  light  given  by  a 
new  burner  does  not  last,  the  light  after  a  fort- 
night probably  commencing  to  decrease.  If  kept  in 
use,  the  mantle  top  becomes  coated  with  soot  and 
a  smoky  flame  issues.  The  burners  go  wrong  in 
a  much  shorter  time  if  used  in  a  room  in  which  a 
fire  is  constantly  burning.  The  cause  of  this  is 
simply  dust,  which  is  drawn  in  at  the  air-holes 
and  carried  up  the  Bunsen  tube.  It  cannot  pass 
away  owing  to  the  screen,  to  which  it  adheres, 
thus  preventing  the  gas  getting  away  quickly 
enough  to  draw  in  the  proper  amount  of  air.  To 


STEAM  AND  GAS  FITTING  171 

remedy  this,  take  off  the  mantle  and,  with  a  small 
brush  (an  old  nail-  or  tooth-brush),  remove  the 
dirt,  blowing  through  the  screen  afterwards. 
Then  replace  the  mantle,  clean  and  replace  the 
chimney,  unscrew  the  Bunsen  tube,  and  brush  the 
nipple  clean.  Blow  the  dust  from  the  tube  and 
then  refix  the  top.  If  the  mantle  is  covered  with 
soot,  leave  the  gas  half  on  until  the  soot  is  re- 
moved. To  keep  the  burners  at  their  best,  this 
process  should  be  done  at  least  monthly.  If  the 
burners  are  in  a  dusty  place  they  will  require 
more  frequent  cleaning. 

Failure  of  the  bye-pass  in  arc  lamps  is  a  com- 
mon fault,  even  in  new  burners.  The  bye-pass 
light  may  go  out  after  the  gas  is  turned  on.  In  a 
new  burner  this  is  often  caused  by  one  of  the  two 
set-screws  on  the  side  of  the  burner  being  inserted 
too  far;  in  this  case,  after  unscrewing  a  complete 
turn,  the  burner  will  most  likely  work.  It  is 
sometimes  necessary  to  take  out  both  screws  and 
to  remove  the  grease  adhering  inside  the  end  of 
the  hole. 

Gas  Proving  Pump.  Considerable  time  will  be 
saved  by  having  a  good  force  pump  with  which  the 
supply  pipe  in  the  street  and  the  house  pipes  may 
be  tested.  A  gas  proving  pump  is  shown  in  Fig. 
103. 

Cleaning  Gas  Fixtures.  If  the  gas  fixtures  can- 
not be  kept  covered  in  summer  time,  they  can  be 
kept  clean  by  going  over  them  every  two  or  throe 


172 


STEAM  AND  GAS  FITTING 


days  with  a  soft,  damp  cloth,  which  must  not  be 
pressed  hard  against  the  fixture,  as  there  will  be 
danger  of  rubbing  off  the  thin  coat  of  lacquer.  All 
that  is  to  be  taken  off  is  the  fly-specks,  for  if  they 
are  allowed  to  remain  for  more  than  two  or  three 


Pig.  103. 

days  they  will  eat  in  through  the  lacquer  and  also 
through  the  plating  and  then  the  more  the  fixtures 
are  cleaned  the  worse  they  will  look.  No  powder 
or  polish  of  any  kind  should  be  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  cleaning  gas  fixtures,  as  it  will  at  once  de- 
stroy the  only  protection  a  gas  fixture  has,  that  is 


STEAM  AND   GAS  FITTING 


173 


the  coat  of  lacquer.  After  using  a  damp  cloth  to 
c^ean  the  fixture,  dry  each  part  at  once  with  a 
soft,  dry  cloth,  a,s  it  will  injure  the  coat  of  lacquer 
to  allow  water  to  dry  on  the  fixture.  Even  the 
moisture  from  the  hand  will  sometimes  leave  a 
stain  that  can  never  be  cleaned  off. 


FLOW  OF  NATURAL  GAS  THROUGH  A  ONE-INCH 
CIRCULAR  OPENING. 

Pressure, 
Inches 
Water. 

Cubic  Feet 
per  Hour. 

Inches 
Mercury. 

Cubic  Feet 
per  Hour. 

Pressure, 
Pounds  per 
Square 
Inch. 

Cubic  Feet 
per  Hour. 

2 

2,041 

1 

5,168 

5 

17,186 

4 

2,897 

2 

7,632 

6 

18,989 

6 

3,542 

3 

9,305 

8 

21,778 

8 

4,116 

4 

10,552 

10 

23,388 

10 

4,563 

5 

12,019 

12 

25,479 

6 

13,220 

15 

27,876 

7 

14,182 

20 

33,027 

8 

15,316 

25 

38,002 

9 

16,025 

30 

42,762 

10 

16,970 

35 

48,074 

40 

52,761 

50 

62,352 

60 

71,125 

HEIGHT  OF  COLUMN  OF  LIQUID  TO  PRODUCE  ONE  POUND 

PRESSURE  PER  SQUARE  INCH  AT  62  DEGREES 

TEMPERATURE. 


Water 

Machinery  oil 
Mercury 


27.71 

30.80 

2.04 


GAS  BURNERS. 

While  much  has  been  written  upon  the  princi- 
ple involved  in  obtaining  a  light  from  gas,  very 
little  is  generally  known  as  to  what  is  required 
and  what  is  the  best  means  to  adopt  to  secure  the 
greatest  amount  of  light  at  the  least  cost,  and 
with  the  least  vitiation  of  the  atmosphere  of  the 
room  where  the  light  is  required.  Many  and  vari- 
ous improvements  have  been  brought  forward 
for  the  accomplishment  of  these  objects,  some 
require  only  a  very  slight  alteration  to  the  exist- 
ing fittings  and  yet  give  very  excellent  results, 
while  others  secure  a  very  high  illuminating 
effect  and  at  the  same  time  not  only  remove  the 
vitiated  air  which  has  been  used  to  support  the 
combustion  of  the  flame,  but  at  the  same  time 
carry  off  the  air  rendered  useless  for  supporting 
life  by  the  inspiration  and  absorption  of  the  oxy- 
gen. 

The  principle  which  is  involved  in  the  burning 
of  gas  may  with  advantage  be  here  mentioned. 
Coal  gas  contains  many  very  different  substances, 
about  one-half  of  it  is  hydrogen,  one-third  marsh 
gas,  and  perhaps  one-tenth  is  carbon  monoxide. 

The  three  gases  mentioned  in  the  statement  are 
of  no  value  as  regards  the  light  they  will  give  by 

174 


GAS  BURNERS  175 

themselves,  but  they  are  capable  of  giving  a  great 
heat  when  ignited,  and  this  heat  is  utilised  for  the 
purpose  of  rendering  white  hot  the  small  quantity 
of  hydro-carbons  in  the  ga,s,  and  it  is  this  incan- 
descence of  the  very  finely  divided  carbon  parti- 
cles which  makes  the  flame  luminous, 

When  a  gas  burner  is  lighted,  the  rush  of  gas 
from  the  orifice  of  the  burner  causes  a  current  of 
air  to  pass  upon  each  side  of  the  flame,  and  thus 
supply  the  oxygen  necessary  to  support  combus- 
tion, the  portion  of  the  flame  nearest  to  the  burner 
is  almost  non-luminous,  and  is,  in  fact,  unignited 
gas  enclosed  in  a  thin  envelope  of  bright  red 
flame.  That  this  is  really  unconsumed  gas  can  be 
shown  by  placing  the  lower  end  of  a  glass  tube 
into  this  portion  of  the  flame  and  applying  a  light 
at  the  upper  end,  when  the  gas  issuing  from  it  is 
seen  to  burn  with  an  ordinary  flame.  The  reason 
that  this  portion  of  the  gas  is  not  luminous  is  that 
the  quantity  of  oxygen  which  is  able  to  get  to  the 
flame  at  this  point  is  only  sufficient  to  cause  the 
outer  portion  to  be  in  a  state  of  incandescence. 
That  there  is  solid  carbon  in  the  flame  may  be 
seen  by  inserting  a  piece  of  cold  metal  or  porcelain 
in  the  white  portion  of  the  flame,  which,  by  re- 
ducing the  temperature  of  the  carbon,  becomes 
coated  with  soot  upon  the  under  side.  The  same 
effect  takes  place  when  the  cold  air  is  allowed  to 
blow  upon  the  surface  of  the  flaine,  the  excess  of 
oxygen  presented  to  the  flame  causing  a  cooling  of 


176  GAS  BURNERS 

the  heating  gases  and  a  consequent  loss  of  light, 
as  the  particles  of  carbon  are  not  then  sufficiently 
heated  to  be  made  white  hot  and  to  give  off  light, 
and  they  then  allow  the  carbon  to  pass  off  in  the 
form  of  soot  and  to  blacken  the  ceilings  and  paint 
of  the  rooms.  This  is  more  likely  to  occur  with 
high  quality  gas,  which  contains  more  particles  of 
hydro-carbons,  and  if  there  be  an  insufficient  sup- 
ply of  oxygen  to  the  flame  a  larger  proportion  of 
soot  will  be  allowed  to  escape  and  settle  upon  the 
ceilings,  etc.  Another  source  of  blackening  of  the 
ceilings  is  the  nearness  of  the  burners  and  the  ab- 
sence of  a  guard  over  them  to  deflect  and  spread 
the  products  of  combustion  over  a  large  space. 
The  real  explanation  of  this  effect  is  that  aqueous 
vapour  formed  by  the  burning  gas  is  condensed 
on  the  ceiling,  and  dust  particles  which  are  float- 
ing in  the  air  are  thereby  caused  to  adhere  to  the 
ceilings.  With  high  quality  gases  small  burners 
should  be  used,  so  that  the  ga,s  may  be  more 
thoroughly  consumed. 

It  appears  that  the  first  burners  were  simply 
pieces  of  pipe  with  one  end  stopped  up.  In  the 
centre  of  the  end  was  drilled  a  small  hole,  and  the 
light  given  off,  principally  owing  to  the  shape  of 
the  flame,  was  very  small.  Then  was  invented  the 
bat  wing  burner,  which  has  a  slot  cut  in  the  dome- 
shaped  top,  and  this  gave  a  flame  somewhat  of 
the  shape  of  a  bat 's  wing,  hence  the  name.  Then 
came  the  union  jet,  which  is  an  arrangement  very 


GAS  BURNERS  177 

generally  in  domestic  use  at  the  present  day.  It 
consists  of  a  piece  of  brass  tube  plugged  with  a 
piece  of  steatite  or  porcelain  with  two  holes  in  it 
drilled  at  such  an  angle  that  the  two  streams  of 
gas  issuing  from  them  meet,  and  cause  the  flame  of 
gas  to  spread  and  form  a  flame  of  horseshoe  shape. 
One  of  the  special  points  to  be  noticed  in  these 
burners  is  that  the  holes  in  them  should  be  of 
comparatively  large  size,  and  the  pressure  of  the 
gas  when  delivered  from  the  burner  reduced  to  the 
lowest  point  at  which  a  firm  flame  can  be  main- 
tained. This  can  be  done  best  by  means  of  what  is 
known  as  a  governor,  which  is  in  effect  a  self-act- 
ing valve  which  allows  only  just  soi  much  gas  to 
pass  as  may  be  required. 

Passing  on  to  the  more  modern  styles  of  burn- 
ers, of  which  there  are  many  patterns,  such  as  the 
regenerative  burners,  it  is  found  that  all  these  em- 
body the  same  principle,  which  is  to  use  the  heat 
generated  by  the  flame  to  heat  the  gas  supply  and 
the  air  supply  so  that  the  cooling  effect  of  the  air, 
which  causes  the  blue  portion  of  an  ordinary  flat 
flame,  is  considerably  reduced,  and  the  particles 
of  carbon  are  rendered  more  rapidly  incandescent, 
and,  being  heated  to  a  greater  temperature,  attain 
greater  luminosity  and  are  kept  for  a  longer 
period  at  this  white  heat. 

The  earliest  arrangement  of  such  a  burner  was 
invented  in  1854,  and  consisted  of  an  argand  burn- 
er with  two  chimneys,  one  outside  of  the  other, 


178  GAS  BURNERS 

the  air  supply  to  the  flame  having  to  pass  down 
between  the  two  glasses,  and  so  to  become  heated 
before  it  was  led  to  the  bottom  of  the  burner.  This 
answered  very  well,  but  the  breakage  of  the  chim- 
ney glasses  was  a  considerable  expense,  and  de- 
barred many  from  adopting  the  system.  This 
trouble  is  quite  overcome  in  the  modern  regenera- 
tive burners,  as  the  chimneys  are  made  of  metal 
and  the  burner  isi  inverted,  so  that  the  flame  is 
spread  outwards  instead  of,  as  in  the  argand 
burner,  upwards.  The  regenerative  burner  gives  a 
light  having  four  times  the  illuminating  power  of 
the  flat-flame  burner. 

With  the  incandescent  burners,  quite  a  modern 
invention,  the  principle  of  admitting  air  to  mix 
with  the  gas  before  lighting  is  employed  as  in  the 
Bunsen  heating  burner,  and  this,  while  taking 
away  the  luminosity  of  the  flame,  causes  it  to  give 
off  a  much  greater  amount  of  heat,  this  heat  being 
utilised  to  render  a  mantle  of  rare  earths  incandes- 
cent or  white  hot.  These  mantles  are  made  conical 
in  shape,  and  when  made  white  hot  emit  a  most 
pleasing  white  light,  which  is  about  five  or  six 
times  more  intense  than  that  given  off  by  the  ordi- 
nary flat  flame  burner. 

With  a  properly  arranged  ventilating  regenera- 
tive burner,  consuming  20  cubic  feet  of  gas  per 
hour,  and  properly  fitted,  not  only  can  all  its  own 
product  of  combustion  be  removed,  but  also  the  air 
vitiated  by  breathing  can  be  removed  at  the  rate  of 


GAS  BURNERS  179 

more  than  5,000  cubic  feet  per  hour  from  the  up- 
per part  of  thei  room. 

The  comparative  quantity  of  air  vitiated  by  dif- 
ferent illuminants  giving  the  same  amount  of  light 
is  shown  by  the  following  table:— 

Gas  burnt  in  union  jets 1 

Lamp  burning  sperm  oil 1.6 

Lamp  burning  kerosene  oil 2.25 

Tallow  candles 4.35 

From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  kerosene 
lamps  use  up  more  than  twice  the  amount  of  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  that  gas  does,  while  tallow  can- 
dles use  more  than  four  times  the  amount. 

For  a  light  of  32  candle-power,  tallow  candles 
would  vitiate  as  much  air  as  would  be  required 
by  about  36  adult  persons,  kerosene  oil  lamps  as 
much  asi  fifteen  adults,  while  gas  varied  from  an 
amount  of  air  required  for  nine  and  a  half  adults 
when  a  batwing  burner  was  used,  to  eight  and  a 
half  when  an  argand  burner  was  used.  In  these 
experiments  not  only  was  the  quantity  of  oxygen 
consumed  taken  into  consideration,  but  carbon 
dioxide  and  the  water  vapour  were  all  taken  ac- 
count of. 

Special  attention  must  be  directed  to  the  neces- 
sity of  having  burners  suitable  to  the  quality  of 
gas  which  is  being  used.  It  may  be  taken  as  a 
fairly  general  rule  that  the  higher  the  illuminat- 
ing power  of  the  gas  the  smaller  the  burner  should 


180  GAS  BURNERS 

be.  With  unsuitable  burners,  not  only  blacken- 
ing of  the  ceilings,  but  a  far  lower  state  of  effi- 
ciency as  regards  the  illuminating  power  of  the 
light  obtained  from  a  given  quantity  of  gas  will 
result. 

The  effect  of  using  bad  burners  is  primarily 
that  the  light  capable  of  being  developed  from  the 
consumption  of  a  definite  quantity  of  gas  is  not 
obtained,  consequently  more  gas  is  burnt  than 
necessity  requires,  in  other  words,  gas  is  wasted, 
and  with  imperfect  combustion,  deleterious  prod- 
ucts are  given  off,  vitiating  the  atmosphere  and 
endangering  health. 

That  the  burners  which  are  most  economical  in 
gas  consumption  are  the  most  expensive  at  first 
cost  is  certainly  the  case  to  some  extent,  but  the 
amount  of  the  saving  effected  by  their  use  quickly 
repays  the  first  cost,  and  thereafter  the  money 
saved  goes  directly  into  the  pocket  of  the  user  of 
the  burner.  The  incandescent  burner  is  the  most 
economical  burner  that  is  at  present  known,  and 
where  gas  is  at  a  high  price  it  is  a  very  distinct 
advantage,  as  the  quantity  of  gas  required  for  a 
given  amount  of  light  is  only  about  one^fifth  of 
that  used  with  the  ordinary  burner.  Then  comes 
the  argand  burner,  which  is  superior  to  the  union 
jet  or  flat-flame  burner,  but  in  all  these  an  ar- 
rangement known  as  a  governor  is  generally  to 
be  found,  by  which  is  regulated  the  quantity  of 
gas  that  can  find  its  way  to  the  point  of  ignition, 


GAS  BURNERS  181 

and,  if  only  just  sufficient  is  allowed  to  pass  so 
that  none  is  wasted,  gas  is  economised.  These 
governors  axe  also  made  for  use  with  the  ordinary 
flat-flame  burner. 

As  has  been  said,  the  principal  gas  burners  now 
in  use  are  the  flat-flame,  argand,  and  incandes- 
cent. Flat-flame  burners  embrace  the  union  jet, 
or  fishtail,  and  the  batwing.  In  the  union  jet  or 
fishtail  the  gas  issues  through  two  apertures  in 
a  steatite  plate  inserted  in  the  top  of  a  cylindrical 
brass  tube,  threaded  at  its  lower  end  for  the  pur- 
pose of  attaching  to  a  gas-fixture.  The  holes  in 
the  steatite  tip  through  which  thei  gas  issues  are 
inclined  towards  each  other  at  an  angle,  so  that 
the  gas  issues  in  two  streams  which  unite  into  one 
flat  flame  at  right  angles  to  a  plane  passing 
through  the  two  holes.  One  of  the  reasons  of  the 
adoption  of  steatite  for  the  tip  of  the  gas  burner 
was  the  fact  that  it  required  a  verv  high  heat  to 
harm  it.  Steatite  is  a  natural  stone  found  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  world,  principally  in  Germany. 
Chemically  it  is  a  double  silicate  of  magnesium, 
and  a  substitute  for  the  natural  substance  may  be 
obtained  by  mixing  silicate  of  magnesium  and  sil- 
icate of  potash.  Natural  steatite  is  of  a  very  fine 
grain,  and  softer  than  ivory,  it  admits  of  being 
worked  to  a  very  fine  polish,  but  after  it  has  been 
burned  in  a  kiln  it  becomes  harder  than  the  hard- 
est steel,  and  will  resist  a  very  high  temperature, 
about  2,000°  Fahrenheit.  In  forming  the  steatite 


182  GAS  BURNERS 

into  burner  tips,  the  material  is  finely  powdered, 
moistened  with  water,  and  kneaded  into  a  plastic 
condition,  after  which  it  is  moulded  to  the  requi- 
site shape  and  finally  burnt  to  harden  it.  The 
diameter  of  the  orifices  in  the  steatite  tips, 
through  which  the  gas  issues,  differs  in  size,  the 
aim  being  in  each  case  to  produce  a,  flame  of  a 
thickness  suited  to  the  quality  of  the  gas  the 
burner  is  intended  to  consume. 

The  batwing  burner  resembles  the  fishtail  or 
union  in  its  general  features,  but.  differs  in  the 
manner  in  which  the  gas  issues  from  it.  In  this 
form  of  burner  the  hollow  tip  is  made  dome- 
shaped  and  has  a  narrow  slit  cut  across  it  and  ex- 
tending some  little  distance  down.  The  slit 
varies  in  width  to  suit  different  qualities  of  gas. 
The  batwing  burner  requires  less  pressure  than 
the  union  jet,  with  the  result  that  the  gas  issues 
with  less  force,  so*  that  the  flame  produced  in 
burners  of  this  class  is  not  so  stiff  as  that  obtained 
with  a  union  burner.  Consequently  it  is  neces- 
sary to  employ  globes  with  burners  of  this  de- 
scription in  order  to  protect  them  from  draught, 
which  would  cause  them  to  flicker  and  smoke. 


GAS  STOVES  AND  FIRES. 

An  examination  of  the  principles  of  gas  stoves* 
and  a  consideration  of  the  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages of  these  heating  appliances,  may  appro- 
priately precede  any  description  of  gas  stoves 
themselves.  A  point  often  ignored  in  the  heating 
of  rooms  is  that  a  room  will  not  feel  warm  until 
its  walls  reach  the  same  temperature  as  the  air 
which  it  contains.  Until  this  occurs,  the  room 
will  feel  draughty,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  walls 
are  depriving  the  air  of  the  heat  given  out  by  the 
stove. 

It  is  necessary  to  examine  the  conditions  of  the 
room  or  building  to  be  heated  before  making  any 
calculation  as  to  the  amount  of  gas  required  to 
heat  it.  Architects  calculate  the  cubical  contents 
of  the  room,  and  gauge  from  this  the  size  and 
character  of  the  heating  appliances  required.  A 
better  plan  is  to  calculate  the  area  of  the  wall  sur- 
face, and,  in  ordinary  dwelling-houses,  allow  that 
one-half  a  heat  unit  is  absorbed  by  each  square 
foot  per  hour  for  each  degree  Fahrenheit  rise 
after  the  necessary  warming  up  is  complete. 

The  number  of  heat  units  generated  per  cubic 
foot  of  gas  of  sixteen  candle-power,  theoretically 
is  670  to  680,  therefore,  to  raise  the  temperature 


184  GAS  STOVES  AND  FIRES 

in  a  room  which,  has  been  once  warmed,  it  is 
necessary  to  allow  a  consumption  of  1  cubic  foot 
for  every  1,300  square  feet  of  wall  surface.  For 
the  preliminary  heating,  however,  considerably 
more  than  this  is  required,  and  as  there  should  be 
a  change  of  air  in  the  room  about  every  twenty 
minutes,  practically  three-fourths  of  the  heat  pro- 
duced by  the  stoves  passes  away  by  ventilation, 
and  consequently  about  four  times  the  above-men- 
tioned quantity  of  heat  is  required  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  a  room  from  the  commencement, 
when  it  is  at  about  the  same  temperature  as  the 
external  air. 

It  was  at  one  time  recommended  to  fix  a  row  of 
Bunsen  burners  in  front  of  or  underneath  an  ordi- 
nary coal  fire-grate,  filled  either  with  black  fuel, 
made  of  fireclay,  or  with  small  coke.  It  gave  a 
very;  cheerful  appearance,  but  it  was  found  that 
the  quantity  of  coke  used,  together  with  the  con- 
sumption of  ga,s,  rendered  the  plan  uneconomical. 
Many  persons  set  a  high  value  upon  the  cheerful 
appearance  of  this  arrangement,  and  are  willing 
to  pay  for  it,  and  makers  have  brought  forward 
improvements  by  which  a  saving  of  gas  is  effected. 
Still,  gas  fires  in  ordinary  coal  grates  can  only  be 
recommended  in  preference  to  gas  stoves  when 
economy  is  not  essential. 

Stoves  in  which  air  passes  over  heated  surfaces 
are  more  economical  than  ordinary  gas  stoves, 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  more  liable  to 


GAS  STOVES  AND  FIRES  185 

cause  unpleasant  odours  through  the  heating  of 
the  dust  particles.  With  these  stoves,  a,s  also  with 
hot-air  and  hot-water  pipes,  as  distinct  from 
grates,  the  heated  air  has  a  great  tendency  to  rise 
to  the  top  of  the  room,  leaving  the  feet  cold  while 
the  head  is  too  warm.  The  same  effect  is  noticed 
where  enclosed  stoves  are  set  forward  some  dis- 
tance into  the  room,  but  these  stoves  are  very  eco- 
nomical, and  where  fuel  is  dear  this  is  a  para- 
mount consideration.  One  pound  of  coal  burnt  in 
an  ordinary  grate  requires,  for  its  proper  com- 
bustion, 300  cubic  feet  of  air  having  a  tempera- 
ture of  620°  Fahrenheit,  and  1  volume  of  gas  for 
complete  combustion  requires  5%  volumes  of  air. 
In  atmospheric  or  Bunsen  burners  the  average 
mixture  of  gas  and  air  is  1  volume  of  gas  to  2.3 
volumes  of  air,  consequently,  a  further  supply  of 
air  around  the  flame  is  necessary  to  cause  com- 
plete combustion,  and  an  analysis  of  the  gases, 
taken  from  the  centre  of  the  glowing  fuel,  shows 
that  often  10  per  cent  of  carbon  monoxide  exists, 
and,  should  down-draughts  occur,  this  must  fiud 
its  way  unnoticed— for  it  has  neither  smell  nor 
color— into  the  room,  hence  the  necessity  for  en- 
suring a  good  draught  from  the  stove.  Curiously 
enough,  however,  the  analyses  of  gases  in  the  flue 
during  the  burning  of  the  gas  stove  do  not  show  a 
trace  of  this  deadly  gas.  An  average  of  some 
twenty-four  stoves  tested  in  this  way  showed  the 
presence  of  12  per  cent  of  oxygen,  84  per  cent  of 


186  GAS  STOVES  AND  FIRES 

nitrogen,  and  4  per  cent  of  carbonic  acid,  thus 
proving  that  all  the  carbon  monoxide  had  been 
converted  into  carbonic  acid  before  leaving  the 
stove  when  burning  in  the  proper  manner.  This 
shows  conclusively  that  flues  are  a  necessity  with 
gas  stoves  in  which  Bunsen  burners  are  in  use, 
although  they  need  not  be  so  large  as  the  usual 
coal-grate  flue,  but  where  flues  are  not  possible, 
only  such  stoves  as  employ  ordinary  lighting 
burners  and  utilise  the  heat  radiated  from  a,  pol- 
ished surface  should  be  fixed. 

Where  a  smoky  chimney  exists,  a  gas  stove  will 
not  cure  it,  unless  the  fault  is  due  to  a  contraction 
of  the  flue,  by  which  the  flow  of  the  draught  is 
impeded.  In  that  case  a  much  smaller  flue  for 
carrying  off  the  products  of  combustion  being  suf- 
ficient with  a  gas  stove  as  compared  with  a  coal 
fire,  the  trouble  will  probably  disappear,  but  it 
would  be  well  to  ascertain  the  origin  of  the  fault 
before  recommending  the  adoption  of  a  gas  stove 
as  a  remedy. 


GAS-FITTING  IN  WORKSHOPS. 

In  fitting  workshops  with  gas,  it  is  important 
that  strong  materials  be  employed  and  it  is  desir- 
able to  use  iron  pipes  throughout.  Where  a  row 
of  benches  is  fixed  upon  each  side  of  a  workshop, 
it  is  usual  to  run  a  pipe  along  just  below  the  ceil- 
ing, with  tees  between  each  window,  from  these  a 
small  pipe  is  carried  down  to  either  a  single  or 
double  swing  iron  bracket.  Some  firms  who  make 
gas-fittings,  supply  iron  brackets,  but  they  can  be 
made  up  quickly  from  the  fittings  and  short  pieces 
of  iron  pipe.  Brass  swivels  wear  considerably 
better  than  those  that  are  made  of  iron,  and  do 
not  corrode  and  stick  in  the  working  parts. 

When  the  lights  are  to  be  located  down  the  mid- 
dle of  a  workshop  where  lathes  or  other  machine 
tools  are  used,  the  only  brass  parts  are  the  cocks 
and  burner  elbows,  the  ordinary  iron  tee  being  very 
suitable  for  the  centre  of  the  pendant.  Where 
more  than  one  floor  is  to  be  lighted,  fix  on  the 
supply  pipe  a  governor  for  regulating  the  quan- 
tity of  gas  delivered,  otherwise  the  pressure  due 
to  the  height  of  the  upper  floors  will  cause  a  low- 
ering of  the  light  in  the  ground  floor  or  basement. 
It  is  also  an  advantage  to  have  each  floor  separate- 

187 


188  GAS-FITTING  IN  WORKSHOPS 

ly  supplied  from  the  main,  so  that  each  floor  may 
be  shut  off  entirely  without  interfering  with  the 
others,  and  if  a  separate  meter  be  supplied  for 
each  floor,  the  quantity  of  gas  consumed  in  pro- 
portion to  the  work  done  after  dark  may  be  check- 
ed, and  any  escape  noted.  Where  a  pipe  falls,  a 
pipe  syphon  or  syphon-box  should  be  fixed,  as  the 
temperature  is  subject  to  extreme  changes  and  the 
quantity  of  condensation  is  much  greater  than  in 
private  houses. 

When  the  pipes  are  run  through  the  floor  and 
up  the  legs  of  the  lathes  or  other  machinery,  it  is 
usual  to  bend  the  pipe  to  the  exact  curves  taken 
by  the  machine,  and  to  fix  the  pipe  in  its  place  by 
means  of  bands  of  iron  bent  to  the  curve  of  the 
pipe,  and  fixed  to  the  machine  by  two  small  set 
screws.  These  bands  may  also  be  found  useful 
in  fitting  up  houses  where  the  nature  of  the  wall 
or  floor  will  not  permit  the  use  of  the  ordinary 
pipe-hook. 

It  is  often  found  necessary  to  fit  up  in  a  work- 
shop over  each  machine  a  bracket  arranged  so  as 
to  move  in  any  direction  to  suit  the  convenience 
of  the  workman.  One  way  of  making  these  fit- 
tings is  to  make  the  elbows  of  the  brackets  of  two- 
double  swing  swivels— one  upright  and  one  on  its 
side.  Another  way  is  to  have  two  lines  of  pipes 
from  the  support,  and  to  connect  both  at  each  end 
to  double  swivels,  while  between  the  upper  and 
lower  pipe,  and  laid  at  an  angle,  is  a  thin  bar, 


GAS-FITTING  IN  WORKSHOPS  189 

which  is  fixed  on  to  the  upper  pipe,  and  can  be 
clamped  to  the  lower  one  when  the  exact  position 
required  has  been  obtained.  This  form  of  bracket 
is  useful  in  drawing  offices,  where  the  burner  and 
shade  commonly  in  use  cause  the  other  pattern  of 
bracket  to  gradually  fall  downwards  on  to  the 
table,  whereas  the  second  arrangement  always 
keeps  parallel,  and,  if  tightly  clamped,  cannot 
change  its  position  without  breaking  the  thin 
metal  bar,  which  should  be  made  sufficiently 
strong  to  withstand  the  strain  due  to  the  weight 
of  the  heaviest  burner  chimney  and  shade  likely 
to  be  placed  upon  it. 

In  making  brackets  and  pendants  it  is  conveni- 
ent to  know  a  quick  and  efficient  way  to  bend  iron 
pipes.  The  exact  shape  required  having  been 
drawn  full  size  upon  paper  the  latter  is  tacked  or 
posted  on  to  a  rough  board.  Strong  cut  nails  are 
then  driven  in  it  to  follow  the  desired  curve,  the 
nails  being  half  the  outside  diameter  of  the  pipe 
from  the  drawn  line,  so  that  the  centre  of  the  pipe, 
when  bent,  may  lie  directly  over  the  drawn  line. 
The  iron  pipe  is  heated  in  a  forge  fire  or  in  a  fur- 
nace, the  latter  heats  the  pipe  equally  over  the 
length  required.  The  end  is  inserted  between  the 
lines  of  nails,  and,  with  the  aid  of  a  pair  of  pliers, 
is  quickly  made  to  follow  the  curves  indicated  by 
the  nails.  Nails  are  not  necessary  on  the  outer 
side  of  the  curves,  except  at  the  starting  point, 
where  a  firm  grip  of  the  pipe  must  be  insured. 


190  GAS-FITTING  IN  WORKSHOPS 

Where  many  pipes  are  to  be  bent  to-  the  same 
.shape,  the  board  is  replaced  by  a  square  plate, 
with  holes  all  over  it,  cast  or  wrought-iron  curves 
replacing  the  nails.  The  saving  in  time  and  the 
accuracy  of  the  bending  soon  repay  the  additional 
outlay.  In  bending  iron  pipe,  proceed  gradually, 
and  make  only  small  curves  at  a  time,  or  the  pipe 
will  collapse. 

For  shop  brackets,  metal  backs  are  found  suit- 
able. These  metal  backs  are  supplied  with  the 
fittings,  and  are  drilled  and  countersunk  ready 
for  erection,  space  being  left  for  the  pipe  to  screw 
into  the  top  of  the  swivel  joint.  A  metal  back 
makes  a  strong  job,  and  answers  every  purpose 
where  very  neat  finish  is  not  necessary. 

In  all  workshops  ventilation  is  a  prime  requisite, 
and  must  be  provided  for,  more  especially  where 
the  rooms  are  low  and  a  considerable  number  of 
workmen  and  gas  lights  are  employed.  Gas  is  an 
excellent  draught  inductor,  an  ordinary  batwing 
or  union  jet  burner  consuming  1  cubic  foot  of  gas 
per  hour,  when  placed  in  a  six-inch  ventilating 
tube  12  feet  long,  will  cause  2,460  cubic  feet  of  air 
per  hour  to  pass  up  the  tube,  and  this  induced 
draught  can  be  easily  adapted  for  the  removal  of 
the  heated  and  vitiated  air  from  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  room.  Each  person  present  will  give 
off  per  hour  about  17.7  cubic  feet  of  air,  of  which 
from  .6  to  .8  of  a  cubic  foot  will  be  carbonic  acid 
(C02),  the  amount  of  C02  evolved  from  the  com- 


GAS-FITTING  IN  WORKSHOPS  191 

bustion  of  coal  gas  is  equal  practically  to  one-half 
the  quantity  of  gas  burnt,  and  an  ordinary  gas 
burner  may  be  considered  as  being  equivalent  to 
at  least  three  adults  in  its  effect  upon  the  atmos- 
phere. The  air  space  required  in  a  workshop  is 
250  cubic  feet  for  each  person  during  the  day  and 
400  feet  at  night.  Again,  500  cubic  feet  of  fresh 
air  per  person  should  be  delivered  into  a  room 
during  each  hour,  and  therefore  the  same  quantity 
of  vitiated  air  must  be  drawn  away  by  some 
means,  no  method  is  more  suitable  or  so  effective 
as  the  one  above  proposed,  in  which  a  lighted 
gas  burner  is  enclosed  by  a  ventilating  shaft.  A 
well -constructed  ceiling  burner  has  an  excellent 
effect  upon  the  ventilation  of  a  room,  workshop, 
or  hall,  when  a  properly  arranged  vertical  shaft, 
usually  of  sheet  iron,  is  carried  up  through  the 
roof,  and  will  at  the  same  time  assist  greatly  in 
the  general  illumination  of  the  shop. 


USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

One  heaped  bushel  of  anthracite  coal  weighs 
from  75  to  80  Ibs. 

One  heaped  bushel  of  bituminous  coal  weighs 
from  70  to  75  Ibs. 

One  bushel  of  coke  weighs  32  Ibs. 

Water,  gas  and  steam  pipes  are  measured  on 
the  inside. 

One  cubic  inch  of  water  evaporated  at  atmos- 
pheric pressure  makes  1  cubic  foot  of  steam. 

A  heat  unit  known  as  a  British  Thermal  Unit 
raises  the  temperature  of  1  pound  of  water  1  de- 
gree Fahrenheit. 

For  low  pressure  heating  purposes,  from  3  to  8 
pounds  of  coal  per  hour  is  considered  economical 
consumption,  for  each  square  foot  of  grate  sur- 
face in  a  boiler,  dependent  upon  conditions. 

A  horse  power  is  estimated  equal  to  75  to  100 
square  feet  of  direct  radiation.  A  horse  power  is 
also  estimated  as  15  square  feet  of  heating  surface 
in  a  standard  tubular  boiler. 

Water  boils  in  a  vacuum  at  98  degrees  Fahren 
heit. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  62%  pounds,  it 
contains  1,728  cubic  inches  or  7%  gallons.  Water 

192 


USEFUL    INFORMATION  193 

expands  in  bailing  about  one-twentieth  of  its  bulk. 

In  turning  into  steam  water  expands  1,700  its 
bulk,  approximately  1  cubic  inch  of  water  will 
produce  1  cubic  foot  of  steam. 

One  pound  of  air  contains  13.82  cubic  feet. 

It  requires  1%  British  Thermal  Units  to  raise 
one  cubic  foot  of  air  from  zero  to  70  degrees  Fah- 
renheit. 

At  atmospheric  pressure  966  heat  units  are  re- 
quired to  evaporate  one  pound  of  water  into 
steam. 

A  pound  of  anthracite  coal  contains  14,500  heat 
uits. 

One  horsepower  is  equivalent  to  42.75  heat  units 
per  minute. 

One  horsepower  is  required  to  raise  33,000 
pounds  one  foot  high  in  one  minute. 

To  produce  one  horsepower  requires  the  evapo- 
ration of  2.66  pounds  of  water. 

One  ton  of  anthracite  coal  contains  about  40 
cubic  feet. 

One  bushel  of  anthracite  coal  weighs  about  86 
pounds. 

Heated  air  and  water  rise  because  their  parti- 
cles are  more  expanded,  and  therefore  lighter  than 
the  colder  particles. 

A  vacuum  is  a  portion  of  space  from  which  the 
air  has  been  entirely  exhausted. 

Evaporation  is  the  slow  passage  of  a  liquid  into 
the  form  of  vapor. 


194  USEFUL    INFORMATION 

Increase  of  temperature,  increased  exposure  of 
surface,  and  the  passage  of  air  currents  over  the 
surface,  cause  increased  evaporation. 

Condensation  is  the  passage  of  a  vapor  into  the 
liquid  state,  and  is  the  reverse  of  evaporation. 

Pressure  exerted  upon  a  liquid  is  transmitted 
undiminished  in  all  directions,  and  acts  with  the 
same  force  on  all  surfaces,  and  at  right  angles  to 
those  surfaces. 

The  pressure  at  each  level  of  a  liquid  is  propor- 
tional to  its  depth. 

With  different  liquids  and  the  same  depth,  pres- 
sure is  proportional  to  the  density  of  the  liquid. 

The  pressure  is  the  same  at  all  points  on  any 
given  level  of  a  liquid. 

The  pressure  of  the  upper  layers  of  a  body  of 
liquid  on  the  lower  layers  causes  the  latter  to  ex- 
ert an  equal  reactive  upward  force.  This  force  is 
called  buoyancy. 

Friction  does  not  depend  in  the  least  on  the 
pressure  of  the  liquid  upon  the  surface  over  which 
it  is  flowing. 

Friction  is  proportional  to  the  area  of  the  sur- 
face. 

At  a  low  velocity  friction  increases  with  the  ve- 
locity of  the  liquid. 

Friction  increases  with  the  roughness  of  the 

surface. 

Friction  increases  with  the  density  of  the  liquid. 
Friction    is    greater   comparatively,    in    small 


USEFUL    INFORMATION  195 

pipes,  for  a  greater  proportion  of  the  water  comes 
in  contact  with  the  sides  of  the  pipe  than  in  the 
case  of  the  large  pipe.  For  this  reason  mains  on 
heating  apparatus  should  be  generous  in  size. 

Air  is  extremely  compressible,  while  water  is 
almost  incompressible. 

Water  is  composed  of  two  parts  of  hydrogen, 
and  one  part  of  oxygen. 

Water  will  absorb  gases,  and  to  the  greatest  ex- 
tent when  the  pressure  of  the  gas  upon  the  water 
is  greatest,  and  when  the  temperature  is  the  low- 
est, for  the  elastic  force  of  gas  is  then  less. 

Air  is  composed  of  about  one-fifth  oxygen  and 
four-fifths  nitrogen,  with  a  small  amount  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas. 

To  reduce  Centigrade  temperatures  to  Fahren- 
heit, multiply  the  Centigrade  degrees  by  9,  divide 
the  result  by  5,  and  add  32. 

To  reduce  Fahrenheit  temperature  to  Centi- 
grade, subtract  32  from  the  Fahrenheit  degrees, 
multiply  by  5  and  divide  by  9. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  required  pipe,  when  the 
volume  and  velocity  of  the  water  are  given,  mul- 
tiply the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  water  by  144  and 
divide  this  amount  by  the  velocity  in  feet  per 
minute. 

Water  boils  in  an  open  vessel  (atmospheric 
pressure  at  sea  level)  at  212  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Water  expands  in  heating  from  39  to  212  de- 
grees Fahrenheit,  about  4  per  cent. 


196 


USEFUL    INFORMATION 


Water  expands  about  one-tenth  its  bulk  by 
freezing  solid. 

Water  is  at  its  greatest  density  and  occupies  the 
least  space  at  39  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Water  is  the  best  known  absorbent  of  heat,  con- 
sequently a  good  vehicle  for  conveying  and  trans- 
mitting heat. 

A  U.  S.  gallon  of  water  contains  231  cubic  inches 
and  weighs  8  1/3  pounds. 

A  column  of  water  27.67  inches  high  has  a  pres- 
sure of  1  pound  to  the  square  inch  at  the  bottom. 

Doubling  the  diameter  of  a  pipe  increases  its 
capacity  four  times. 

A  hot  water  boiler  will  consume  from  3  to  8 
pounds  of  coal  per  hour  per  square  foot  of  grate, 
the  difference  depending  upon  conditions  of  draft, 
fuel,  system  and  management. 

A  cubic  foot  of  anthracite  coal  averages  50 
pounds.  A  cubic  foot  of  bituminous  coal  weighs 
40  pounds. 


PRESSURE  OF  WATER  FOR  EACH  FOOT  IN  HEIGHT. 

Feet  In 

Pounds  per 

Feet  in 

Pounds  per 

Feet  in 

Pounds  per 

Height. 

Sq.  In. 

Height. 

Sq.  In. 

Height. 

Sq.  In. 

1 

.43 

15 

6.49 

50 

21.65 

2 

.86 

20 

8.66 

70 

30.32 

5 

2.16 

25 

10.82 

80 

34.65 

10 

4.33 

40 

17.32 

100 

43.31 

USEFUL    INFORMATION 


197 


BOILING 

POINTS  OF  VARIOUS  FLUIDS. 

Substance. 

Degrees. 

Substance. 

Degrees. 

Water  in  Vacuum 
Water,  Atmosph'c 
Alcohol 
Sulphuric  Acid 

98 
Pres.  212 
173 
240 

Refined  Petroleum 
Turpentine 
Sulphur 
Linseed  Oil 

316 
315 
570 
597 

Weights. 

One    cubic    inch    of    water 

weighs 0 . 036  pounds 

One  U.  S.  gallon      weighs. . .     8.33        " 

One  Imperial  gallon    "      ...10.00 

One  U.  S.  gallon      equals. . .  .231.00    cubic  inches 

One  Imperial  gallon    "      ...277.274      " 

One    cubic    foot     of    water 

equals 7.48    U.  S.  gallons 

Liquid  Measure. 

4  Gills  make  1  Pint  4  Quarts  make  1  Gallon 

2  Pints  make  1  Quart       31%  Gals,  make  1  Barrel 


Size  of  Pipe  in  Inches. 

Sq.  Ft.  in  one  Lineal  Ft. 

Gallons  of  Water  in  100 
Feet  in  Length. 

% 

.27 

2.77 

1 

.34 

4.50 

1% 

.43 

7.75 

\% 

.50 

10.59 

2 

.62 

17.43 

2K 

.75 

24.80 

3 

.92 

38.38 

3% 

1.05 

51.36 

4 

1.17 

66.13 

198  USEFUL    INFORMATION 

To  find  the  area  of  a  rectangle,  multiply  the 
length  by  the  breadth. 

To  find  the  area  of  triangle,  multiply  the  base 
by  one-half  the  perpendicular  height. 

To  find  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  multiply 
the  diameter  by  3.1416. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  circle,  multiply  the  diam- 
eter by  itself,  and  the  result  by  .7854. 

To  find  the  diameter  of  a  circle  of  a  given  area, 
divide  the  area  by  .7854,  and  find  the  square  root 
of  the  result. 

To  find  the  diameter  of  a  circle  which  shall  have 
the  same  area  as  a  given  square,  multiply  one  side 
of  the  square  by  1.128. 

To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  cylindrical 
tank,  multiply  the  diameter  in  inches  by  itself, 
this  by  the  height  in  inches,  and  the  result  by  .34. 
To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  rectangular 
tank,  multiply  together  the  length,  breadth  and 
height  in  feet,  and  this  result  by  7.4.  If  the  di- 
mensions are  in  inches,  multiply  the  product  by 
.004329.  To  find  the  pressure  in  pounds  per 
square  inch,  of  a  column  of  water,  multiply  the 
height  of  the  column  in  feet  by  .434. 

To  find  the  head  in  feet,  the  pressure  being 
known,  multiply  the  pressure  per  square  inch  by 
2.31. 

To  find  the  lateral  pressure  of  water  upon  the 
side  of  a  tank,  multiply  in  inches,  the  area  of  the 


USEFUL    INFORMATION  199 

submerged  side,  by  the  pressure  due  to  one-half 
the  depth. 

Example— Suppose  a  tank  to  be  12  feet  long  and 
12  feet  deep.  Find  the  pressure  on  the  side  of  the 
tank. 

144  x  144=20,736  square  inches  area  of  side. 

12  x  .43=5.16,  pressure  at  bottom  of  tank.  Pres- 
sure at  the  top  of  tank  is  0.  Average  pressure 
will  then  be  2.6.  Therefore  20,736  x  2.6=53,914 
pounds  pressure  on  side  of  tank. 

To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  foot  of  pipe 
of  any  given  diameter,  multiply  the  square  of  di- 
ameter of  the  pipe  in  inches,  by  .0408. 

To  find  the  diameter  of  pipe  to  discharge  a  giv- 
en volume  of  water  per  minute  in  cubic  feet,  mul- 
tiply the  square  of  the  quantity  in  cubic  feet  per 
minute  by  96.  This  will  give  the  diameter  in 
inches. 

Cleaning  Busted  Iron.  Place  the  articles  to  be 
cleaned  in  a  saturated  solution  of  chloride  of  tin 
and  allow  them  to  stand  for  a  half  day  or  more. 

When  removed,  wash  the  articles  in  water,  then 
in  ammonia.  Dry  quickly,  rubbing  them  hard. 

Removing  Boiler  Scale.  Kerosene  oil  will  ac- 
complish this  purpose,  often  better  than  specially 
prepared  compounds. 

Cleaning  Brass.  Mix  in  a  stone  jar  one  part  of 
nitric  acid,  one-half  part  of  sulphuric  acid.  Dip 
the  brass  work  into  this  mixture,  wash  it  off  with 
water,  and  dry  with  sawdust.  If  greasy,  dip  the 


200  USEFUL    INFORMATION 

work  into  a  strong  mixture  of  potash,  soda,  and 
water,  to  remove  the  grease,  and  wash  it  off  with 
water. 

Kemoving  Grease  Stains  from  Marble.  Mix  1% 
parts  of  soft  soap,  3  parts  of  Fuller 's  earth  and 
1%  parts  of  potash,  with  boiling  water.  Cover  the 
grease  spots  with  this  mixture,  and  allow  it  to 
stand  a  few  hours. 

Strong  Cement,  Melt  over  a  slow  fire,  equal 
parts  of  rubber  and  pitch.  When  wishing  to  ap- 
ply the  cement,  melt  and  spread  it  on  a  strip  of 
strong  cotton  cloth. 

Cementing  Iron  and  Stone.  Mix  10  parts  of  fine 
iron  filings,  30  parts  of  plaster  of  Paris,  and  one- 
half  parts  of  sal  ammoniac,  with  weak  vinegar. 
Work  this  mixture  into  a  paste,  and  apply  quick- 

iy. 

.  Cement  for  Steam  Boilers.  Four  parts  of  red 
or  white  lead  mixed  in  oil,  and  3  parts  of  iron  bor- 
ings, make  a  good  soft  cement  for  this  purpose. 

Cement  for  Leaky  Boilers.  Mix  1  part  of  pow- 
dered litharge,  1  part  of  fine  sand,  and  one-half 
part  of  slacked  lime  with  linseed  oil,  and  apply 
quickly  as  possible. 

Making  Tight  Steam  Joints.  With  white  lead 
ground  in  oil  mix  as  much  manganese  as  possible, 
with  a  small  amount  of  litharge.  Dust  the  board 
with  red  lead,  and  knead  this  mass  by  hand  into  a 
small  roll,  which  is  then  laid  on  the  plate,  oiled 


USEFUL    INFORMATION  201 

with  linseed  oil.  It  can  then  be  screwed  into 
place. 

Substitute  for  Fire  Clay.  Mix  common  earth 
with  weak  salt  water. 

Bust  Joint  Cement.  Mix  5  pounds  of  iron  fil- 
ings, 1  ounce  of  sal  ammoniac,  and  1  ounce  of  sul- 
phur, and  thin  the  mixture  with  water. 

Removing  Rust  from  Steel.  Mix  one-half  ounce 
of  cyannide  of  potassium,  %  ounce  of  castile  soap, 
1  ounce  of  whiting,  adding  enough  water  to  form  a 
paste,  and  apply  to  the  steel.  Rinse  it  off  with  a 
solution  formed  of  one-half  ounce  of  cyannide  of 
potassium  and  2  ounces  of  water. 


COMPARATIVE  VALUE  OF  COAL,  OIL,  AND 

GAS. 

In  good  practice,  with  boilers  of  proper  con- 
struction and  proportioned  to  the  work- 
One  pound  of  coal  will  evaporate  10  pounds  of 
water  at  212  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

One  pound  of  oil  will  evaporate  16  pounds  of 
water  at  212  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

One  pound  of  natural  gas  will  evaporate  20 
pounds  of  water  at  212  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

One  pound  of  coal  equals  11.225  cubic  feet  of 
natural  gas. 

Two  thousand  pounds  of  coal  (1  ton)  equals  22,- 
450  cubic  feet  of  natural  gas. 


202  USEFUL    INFORMATION 

One  pound  of  oil  equals  18.00  cubic  feet  of 
natural  gas. 

One  barrel  of  oil  (42  gallons)  equals  5,310.00 
cubic  feet  of  natural  gas. 

1.125  cubic  feet  of  natural  gas  will  evaporate  1 
pound  of  water. 

1.00  cubic  feet  of  natural  gas  equals  860  Heat 
Units. 

1,000  cubic  feet  of  natural  gas  equals  860,000 
Heat  Units. 

One  ton  of  coal  will  equal  19,307,000  Heat  Units. 

One  barrel  of  oil  will  equal  4,566.600  Heat  Units. 

In  ordinary  practice,  about  twice  as  much  of  the 
above  fuels  are  required  to  evaporate  the  above 
amounts. 


USEFUL  KINKS. 

Paint  for  Iron.  Dissolve  y%  pound  of  asphalt- 
um  and  %  pound  of  pounded  resin  in  2  pounds 
of  tar  oil.  Mix  hot  in  an  iron  kettle,  but  do 
not  allow  it  to  come  in  contact  with  the  fire.  It 
may  be  used  as  soon  as  cold,  and  is  good  both 
for  outdoor  wood  and  ironwork. 

Recipe  for  Heat-Proof  Paint.  A  good  cylinder 
and  exhaust  pipe  paint  is  made  as  follows: 

Two  pounds  of  black  oxide  of  manganese,  3 
pounds  of  graphite  and  9  pounds  of  Fuller's 
earth,  thoroughly  mixed.  Add  a  compound  of 
10  parts  of  sodium  silicate,  1  part  of  glucose 
and  4  parts  of  water,  until  the  consistency  is  such 
that  it  can  be  applied  with  a  brush. 

Rust  Joint  Composition.  This  is  a  cement 
made  of  sal-ammoniac  1  pound,  sulphur  %  pound, 
cast-iron  turnings  100  pounds.  The  whole 
should  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  moistened  with 
a  little  water.  If  the  joint  is  required  to  set 
very  quick,  add  ^4  pound  more  sal-ammoniac. 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  too  much  sal- 
ammoniac,  or  the  mixture  will  become  rotten. 

Removing  Rust  from  Iron.  Iron  may  be 
quickly  and  easily  cleaned  by  dipping  in  or 

203 


204  USEFUL  KINKS 

washing  with  nitric  acid  one  part,  muriatic  acid 
one  part  and  water  twelve  parts.  After  using 
wash  with  clean  water. 

Making  Pipe  Joints.  Never  screw  pipe  to- 
gether for  either  steam,  water  or  gas  without 
putting  white  or  red  lead  on  the  joints. 

Many  times  in  taking  pipe  apart  the  joints 
are  stuck  so  hard  that  it  is  impossible  to  un- 
screw the  pipe;  heat  the  coupling  (not  the  pipe) 
by  holding  a  hot  iron  on  it,  or  hammer  the 
coupling  with  a  light  hammer,  either  one  will 
expand  the  coupling  and  break  the  joint  so  it 
can  be  easily  unscrewed. 

Annealing  Cast  Iron.  To  anneal  cast  iron, 
heat  it  in  a  slow  charcoal  fire  to  a  dull  red  heat; 
then  cover  it  over  about  two  inches  with  fine 
charcoal,  then  cover  all  with  ashes.  Let  it  lay 
until  cold.  Hard  cast  iron  can  be  softened 
enough  in  this  way  to  be  filed  or  drilled.  This 
process  will  be  exceedingly  useful  to  iron  found- 
ers, as  by  this  means  there  will  be  a  great  saving 
of  expense  in  making  new  patterns. 

To  make  a  casting  of  precisely  the  same  size 
of  a  broken  casting  without  the  original  patterns : 
Put  the  pieces  of  broken  casting  together  and 
mould  them,  and  cast  from  this  mould.  Then 
anneal  it  as  above  described;  it  will  expand  to 
the  original  size  of  the  pattern,  and  there  re- 
main in  that  expanded  state. 

Preventing  Iron  or  Steel  from  Rusting.    The 


USEFUL   KINKS  205 

best  treatment  for  polished  iron  or  steel,  which 
has  a  habit  of  growing  gray  and  lustreless,  is 
to  wash  it  very  clean  with  a  stiff  brush  and  am- 
monia soapsuds,  rinse  well  and  dry  by  heat  if 
possible,  then  oil  plentifully  with  sweet  oil  and 
dust  thickly  with  powdered  quick  lime.  Let  the 
lime  stay  on  two  days,  then  brush  it  off  with  a 
clean  stiff  brush.  Polish  with  a  softer  brush, 
and  rub  with  cloths  until  the  lustre  comes  out. 
By  leaving  the  lime  on,  iron  and  steel  may  be 
kept  from  rust  almost  indefinitely. 

Loosening  Rusted  Screws.  One  of  the  simplest 
and  readiest  ways  of  loosening  a  rusted  screw  is 
to  apply  heat  to  the  head  of  the  screw.  A  small 
bar  or  rod  of  iron,  flat  at  the  end,  if  reddened 
in  the  fire  and  applied  for  two  or  three  minutes 
to  the  head  of  a  rusty  screw,  will,  as  soon  as  it 
heats  the  screw,  render  its  withdrawal  as  easy 
with  the  screwdriver  as  if  it  were  only  a  recently 
inserted  screw.  This  is  not  particularly  novel, 
but  it  is  worth  knowing. 

Tinning  Cast  Iron.  To  successfully  coat  cast- 
ings with  tin  they  must  be  absolutely  clean  and 
free  from  sand  and  oxide.  They  are  usually 
freed  from  imbedded  sand  in  a  rattler  or  tumb- 
ling box,  which  also  tends  to  close  the  surface 
grain  and  give  the  article  a  smooth  metallic 
face.  The  articles  should  be  then  placed  in  a 
hot  pickle  of  one  part  of  sulphuric  acid  to  four 
parts  of  water,  in  which  they  are  allowed  to 


206  USEFUL   KINKS 

remain  from  one  to  two  hours,  or  until  the  re- 
cesses are  free  from  scale  and  sand.  Spots  may 
be  removed  by  a  scraper  or  wire  brush.  The 
castings  are  then  washed  in  hot  water  and  kept 
in  clean  hot  water  until  ready  to  dip.  For  a 
flux,  dip  in  a  mixture  composed  of  four  parts 
of  a  saturated  solution  of  sal-ammoniac  in  water 
and  one  part  of  hydrochloric  acid,  hot.  Then  dry 
the  castings  and  dip  them  in  the  tin  pot.  The 
tin  should  be  hot  enough  to  quickly  bring  the 
castings  to  its  own  temperature  when  perfectly 
fluid,  but  not  hot  enough  to  quickly  oxidize  the 
surface  of  the  tin.  A  sprinkling  of  pulverized 
sal-ammoniac  may  be  made  on  the  surface  of  the 
tin,  or  a  little  tallow  or  palm  oil  may  be  used 
to  clear  the  surface  and  make  the  tinned  work 
come  out  clear.  As  soon  as  the  tin  on/ihe  cast- 
ings ha,s  chilled  or  set,  they  should  be  washed 
in  hot  sal  soda  water  and  dried  in  sawdust. 

Removing  Scale  from  Iron  Castings.  Immerse 
the  parts  in  a  mixture  composed  of  one  part  of 
oil  of  vitriol  to  three  parts  of  water.  In  six  to 
ten  hours  remove  the  castings,  and  wash  them 
thoroughly  with  clean  water.  A  weaker  solution 
can  be  used  by  allowing  a  longer  time  for  the 
action  of  the  solution. 

Cleaning  Brass  Castings.  If  greasy,  the  cast- 
ings should  be  cleaned  by  boiling  in  lye  or 
potash.  The  first  pickle  is  composed  of  nitric 
acid  one  quart,  water  six  to  eight  quarts.  After 


USEFUL   KINKS  207 

pickling  in  this  mixture  the  castings  should  be 
washed  in  clear  warm  or  hot  water,  and  the  fol- 
lowing pickle  be  then  used:  Sulphuric  acid  one 
quart,  nitric  acid  two  quarts,  muriatic  acid,  a 
few  drops.  The  first  pickle  will  remove  the  dis- 
colorations  due  to  iron,  if  present.  The  muriatic 
acid  of  the  second  pickle  will  darken  the  color  of 
the  castings  to  an  extent  depending  on  the 
amount  used. 

Tinning  Surfaces.  Articles  of  brass  or  copper 
boiled  in  a  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium 
mixed  with  turnings  or  scraps  of  tin  in  a  few 
moments  become  covered  with  a  firmly  attached 
layer  of  fine  tin. 

A  similar  effect  is  produced  by  boiling  the 
articles  with  tin  turnings  or  scraps  and  caustic 
alkali,  or  cream  of  tartar.  In  either  way,  arti- 
cles made  of  copper  or  brass  may  be  easily  and 
perfectly  tinned. 

Protecting  Bright  Work  from  Rust.  Use  a 
mixture  of  one  pound  of  lard,  one  ounce  of  gum 
camphor,  melted  together,  with  a  little  lamp- 
black. A  mixture  of  lard  oil  and  kerosene  in 
equal  parts.  A  mixture  of  tallow  and  white  lead, 
or  of  tallow  and  lime. 

How  to  Braze.     Clean  the  article  thoroughly 
and  better  to  polish  with  sand  paper.     Fasten 
the  parts  to  be  brazed  firmly  together,  so  they 
will  not  part  when  heated  in  the  fire.    Place  over 
a  slow  fire  of  charcoal  or  well  coked  coal.    Place 


208  USEFUL   KlNKg 

on  the  parts  to  be  brazed  a  small  quantity  of 
pulverized  borax;  as  soon  as  this  is  done  boiling 
and  has  flowed  to  all  parts,  then  put  on  the 
spelter;  when  the  spelter  melts  it  will  generally 
run  in  globules  or  shot.  Jar  the  piece  by  gently 
striking  with  a,  small  piece  of  wire;  this  will 
cause  the  spelter  to  flow  to  all  parts. 

Lead  Explosions.  Many  mechanics  have  had 
their  patience  sorely  tried  when  pouring  lead 
around  a  damp  or  wet  joint,  to  have  it  explode, 
blow  out  or  scatter  from  the  effects  of  steam 
generated  by  the  heat  of  the  lead.  The  whole 
trouble  may  be  avoided  by  putting  a  piece  of 
resin,  the  size  of  a  man's  thumb,  into  the  ladle 
and  allowing  it  to  melt  before  pouring. 

Sharpening  Files.  To  sharpen  dull  and  worn 
out  files,  lay  them  in  dilute  Sulphuric  Acid,  one 
part  acid  to  two  parts  of  water  over  night,  then 
rinse  well  in  clear  water,  put  the  acid  in  an 
earthenware  vessel. 

Soldering  Aluminum.  When  soldering  alum- 
inum, it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  upon  ex- 
posure to  the  air  a  slight  film  of  oxide  forms 
over  the  surface  of  the  aluminum,  and  after- 
wards protects  t-ie  metal.  The  oxide  is  the  same 
color  as  the  metal,  so  that  it  cannot  easily  be 
distinguished.  The  idea  in  soldering  is  to  get 
underneath  this  oxide  while  the  surface  is  cover- 
ed with  the  molten  solder.  Clean  off  all  dirt  and 
grease  from  the  surface  of  the  metal  with  a  little 


USEFUL   KINKS  209 

benzine,  apply  the  solder  with  a  copper  bit,  and 
when  the  molten  solder  is  covering  the  surface 
of  the  metal,  scratch  through  the  solder  with  a 
steel  wire  scratch-brush.  By  this  means  the 
oxide  on  the  surface  of  the  metal  is  broken  up 
underneath  the  solder,  which  containing  its  own 
flux,  takes  up  the  oxide  and  enables  the  surface 
of  the  aluminum  to  be  tinned  properly. 

Small  surfaces  of  aluminum  can  be  soldered 
by  the  use  of  zinc  and  Venetian  turpentine. 
Place  the  solder  upon  the  metal  together  with 
the  turpentine  and  heat  very  gently  with  a 
blowpipe  until  the  solder  is  entirely  melted.  The 
trouble  with  this,  as  with  other  solders,  is  that 
it  will  not  flow  gently  on  the  metal.  Therefore 
large  surfaces  cannot  be  easily  soldered. 

Another  method  is  to  clean  the  aluminum 
surfaces  by  scraping,  and  then  cover  with  a 
layer  of  paraffine  wax  as  a  flux.  Then  coat  the 
surfaces  by  fusion,  with  a  layer  of  an  alloy  of 
zinc,  tin  and  lead,  preferably  in  the  following 
proportions;  Zinc  five  parts,  tin  two  parts,  lead 
one  part. 

The  metallic  surfaces  thus  prepared  can  be 
soldered  together  either  by  means  of  zinc  or 
cadmium,  or  alloys  of  aluminum  with  these 
metals.  In  fact,  any  good  soldering  preparation 
will  answer  the  purpose. 

A  good  solder  for  low-grade  work  is  the  fol- 
lowing: Tin  95  parts,  bismuth  five  parts. 


210  USEFUL   KINKS 

A  good  flux  in  all  cases  is  either  stearin, 
vaseline,  paraffine,  copaiva  balsam,  or  benzine. 

In  the  operation  of  soldering,  small  tools  made 
of  aluminum  are  used,  which  facilitate  at  the 
same  time  the  fusion  of  the  solder  and  its  ad- 
hesion to  the  previously  prepared  surfaces.  Tools 
made  of  copper  or  brass  must  be  strictly  avoided 
as  they  would  form  colored  alloys  with  the 
aluminum  and  the  solder. 

Aluminum  Solder.  This  consists  of  28  pounds 
of  block  tin,  three  and  one-half  pounds  of  lead, 
seven  pounds  of  spelter,  and  14  pounds  of  phos- 
phor-tin. The  phosphor-tin  should  contain  10 
per  cent  of  phosphorus.  Clean  off  all  the  dirt 
and  grease  from  the  surface  of  the  metal  with 
benzine,  apply  the  solder  with  a  copper  bit,  and 
when  the  molten  solder  covers  the  metal,  scratch 
through  the  solder  with  a  wire  scratch  brush. 

Sweating  Aluminum  to  Other  Metals.  First 
coat  the  aluminum  surface  to  be  soldered  with  a 
layer  of  zinc.  On  top  of  the  zinc  is  melted  a 
layer  of  an  alloy  of  one  part  aluminum  to  two 
and  one-half  parts  of  zinc.  The  surfaces  are 
placed  together  and  heated  until  the  alloy  be- 
tween them  is  liquefied. 

Soldering  Fluid.  Take  of  scrap  zinc  or  pure 
spelter  about  %  pound,  and  immerse  in  a  half- 
pint  of  muriatic  acid.  If  the  scraps  completely 
dissolve  add  more  until  the  acid  ceases  to  bubble 
and  a  small  piece  of  metal  remains.  Let  this 


USEFUL   KINKS  211 

stand  for  a  day  and  then  carefully  pour  off  the 
clear  liquid,  or  filter  it  through  a  cone  of  blot 
ting  paper.  Add  a  teaspoonful  of  sal-ammoniac, 
and  when  thoroughly  dissolved,  the  solution  is 
ready  for  use.  Depending  on  the  materials  to 
be  soldered,  the  quantity  of  sal-ammoniac  can 
be  reduced.  Its  presence  makes  soldering  very 
easy,  but,  unless  the  parts  are  well  heated  so  as 
to  evaporate  the  salt,  the  joints  may  rust. 

Etching  on  Iron  or  Steel.  Take  one-half  ounce 
of  nitric  acid  and  one  ounce  'of  muriatic  acid. 
Mix,  shake  well  together,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 
Cover  the  place  you  wish  to  mark  with  melted 
beeswax,  when  cold  write  the  inscription  plainly 
an  the  wax  clear  to  the  metal  with  a  sharp  in- 
strument, then  apply  the  mixed  acids  with  a 
feather,  carefully  filling  each  letter.  Let  it  re- 
main from  one  to  ten  minutes,  according  to  the 
appearance  desired.  Then  throw  on  water,  which 
stops  the  etching  process  and  removes  the  wax. 

Soldering  Solution.  An  excellent  method  of 
preparing  resin  for  soldering  bright  tin  is  given 
as  follows:  Take  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  olive 
oil  and  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  tallow  and  12 
ounces  of  pulverized  resin.  Mix  these  ingredients 
and  let  them  boil  up.  When  this  mixture  has  be- 
come cool,  add  one  and  three-eighths  pints  of 
water  saturated  with  pulverized  sal  ammoniac, 
stirring  constantly. 

Softening  Cast  Iron.    To  soften  iron  for  drill- 


212  USEFUL    KINKS 

ing,  heat  to  a  cherry-red,  having  it  lie  level  in  the 
fire.  Then  with  tongs,  put  on  a  piece  of  brim- 
stone, a  little  less  in  size  than  the  hole  is  to  be. 
This  softens  the  iron  entirely  through.  Let  it 
lie  in  the  fire  until  cooled,  when  it  is  ready  to  drill. 

Suggestions  how  to  Solder.  Clean  the  parts 
thoroughly  from  all  rust,  grease  or  scale,  then  wet 
with  prepared  acid.  Hold  tha  soldering  copper 
on  each  part  until  the  article  is  well  tinned  and 
the  solder  has  flowed  to  all  parts. 

Watch-Makers'  Oil  that  Will  Never  Corrode  or 
Thicken.  Take  a  bottle  about  half  full  of  good 
olive  oil  and  put  in  thin  strips  of  sheet  lead,  ex- 
pose it  to  the  sun  for  a  month,  then  pour  off  the 
clear  oil.  The  above  is  a  very  cheap  way  of  mak- 
ing a  first-class  oil  for  any  light  machinery. 

Varnish  for  Copper.  To  protect  copper  from 
oxidation  a  varnish  may  be  employed  which  is 
composed  of  carbon  disulphide  1  part,  benzine  1 
part,  turpentine  oil  1  part,  methyl  alchol  2  parts 
and  hard  copal  1  part.  It  is  well  to  apply  several 
coats  of  it  to  the  copper. 

Glue  for  Iron.  Put  an  equal  amount  by  weight 
of  finely  powdered  rosin  in  glue  and  it  will  ad- 
here firmly  to  iron  or  other  metal  surfaces. 

Soldering  or  Tinning  Acid.  Muriatic  Acid  1 
pound,  put  into  it  all  the  zinc  it  will  dissolve  and 
1  ounce  of  Sal  Ammoniac,  add  as  much  clear 
water  as  acid,  it  is  then  ready  for  use. 

Plaster  of  Paris.    Common  plaster  that  farmers 


USEFUL   KINKS  213 

use  to  put  on  land  and  plaster  of  paris  are  the 
same  thing,  except  plaster  of  paris  is  common 
plaster  calcined.  Many  times  it  is  difficult  to  get 
calcined  plaster,  and  when  it  is  procured  it  is 
badly  adulterated  with  lime  and  unfit  for  many 
uses.  Ten  calcine  plaster,  or  in  other  words,  to 
make  common  plaster  so  it  will  harden,  you  have 
but  to  take  the  plaster  and  put  it  in  an  iron  kettle 
and  place  it  over  a  slow  fire,  put  no  water  in  it. 
In  a  few  moments,  it  will  begin  to  boil  and  will 
continue  to  do>  so  until  every  particle  of  moisture 
is  evaporated  out  of  it.  When  it  has  stopped 
boiling  take  it  off,  andi  when  cold  it  is  ready  for 
use.  Plaster  treated  in  this  way  will  harden  much 
quicker  and  harder  than  any  which  can  be 
bought  ready  prepared. 

Hardening  Small  Articles.  To  harden  small 
tools  or  articles  that  are  apt  to  warp  in  hard- 
ening, heat  very  carefully,  and  insert  in  a  raw 
potato,  then  draw  the  temper  as  usual. 

Bluing  Brass.  Dissolve  one  ounce  of  antimony 
chloride  in  twenty  ounces  of  water  and  add  three 
ounces  of  pure  hydrochloric  acid.  Place  the 
warmed  brass  article  into  this  solution  until  it 
has  turned  blue.  Then  wash  it  and  dry  in  saw- 
dust. 

Drilling  Glass.  Take  an  old  three-cornered  file, 
one  that  is  worn  out  will  do,  break  it  off  and 
sharpen  to  a  point  like  a  drill  and  place  in  a  car- 
penter's brace.  Have  the  glass  fastened  on  a 


214  USEFUL   KINKS 

good  solid  table  so  there  will  be  no  danger  of  its 
breaking.  Wet  the  glass  at  the  point  where  the 
hole  is  to  made  with  the  following  solution: 

Ammonia  6V2  drachms 

Ether 3y2  drachms 

Turpentine 1       ounce 

Keep  the  drill  wet  with  the  above  solution  and 
bore  the  hole  part  way  from  each  side  of  the 
glass. 

Another  solution  is  to  dissolve  a  piece  of  gum 
camphor  the  size  of  a  walnut  in  one  ounce  of  tur- 
pentine. 

Another  method  is  to  use  a  steel  drill  hardened, 
but  not  drawn.  Saturate  spirits  of  turpentine 
with  camphor  and  wet  the  drill.  The  drill  should 
be  ground  with  aj  long  point  and  plenty  of  clear- 
ance. Run  the  drill  fast  and  with  a  light  feed. 
In  this  manner  glass  can  be  drilled  with  small 
holes,  up  to  3-16  inch  in  diameter  nearly  as  rapid- 
ly a,s  cast  steel. 

Cement  for  Pipe  Joints.  Mix  10  parts  iron 
filings  and  3  parts  chloride]  of  lime  to  a  paste  by 
means  of  water.  Apply  to  the  joint  and  clamp 
up.  It  will  be  solid  in  12  hours. 

Removing  Stains.  To  remove  Ink  Stains,  wash 
with  pure  fresh  water,  and  apply  oxalic  acid.  If 
this  changes  the  stain  to  a  red  color,  apply  am- 
monia, To  remove  Iron  Rust  from  White  Fabrics, 
saturate  the  spots  with  lemon  juice  and  salt  and 
expose  to  the  sun. 


USEFUL   KINKS  215 

Weight  of  Castings.  If  you  have  a  pattern 
made  of  soft  pine,  put  together  without  nails,  an 
iron  casting  made  from  it  will  weigh  sixteen 
pounds  to  every  pound  of  the  pattern.  If  the 
casting  is  of  brass,  it  will  weigh  eighteen  pounds 
to  every  pound  of  the  pattern. 

Ordering  Taps  and  Dies.  In  ordering  Taps  and 
Dies,  be  sure  and  give  the  kind,  exact  size  and 
thread  wanted.  Always  remember  you  are  writ- 
ing to  a  person  who  knows  nothing  of  what  is 
wanted,  therefore  make  the  order  plain  and  ex- 
plicit. Never  order  a  special  Tap  or  Die  if  it  can 
be  avoided,  as  such  will  cost  at  least  double  that 
of  regular  sizes  and  threads. 

Tapping  Nuts.  Always  use  good  Lard  Oil  in 
cutting  threads  with  a  die  or  tapping  out  nuts. 
Poor  cheap  oil  will  soon  ruin  both  die  and  tap. 

Grindstones.  Grindstones  to  grind  tools  should 
be  run  at  a  speed  of  about  800  feet  per  minute  at 
its  periphery,  a  30-inch  stone  should  be  run  about 
100  revolutions  per  minute.  When  used  to  grind 
carpenters'  tools  a  speed  of  600  feet  at  its  peri- 
phery, a  30-inch  stone  should  therefore  be  run  at 
75  revolutions  per  minute. 

White  Metal  for  Bearings.  White  metal  for 
bearings  consists  of  48  pounds  of  tin,  4  pounds 
of  copper,  and  1  pound  of  antimony.  The  copper 
and  tin  are  melted  first,  and  then  the  antimony 
is  added. 

Marine  Glue.     One  part  of  pure  India  rubber 


216  USEFUL   KINKS 

dissolved  in  naphtha.  When  melted  add  two 
parts  of  shellac.  Melt  until  mixed. 

To  Soften  Cast  Iron.  Heat  the  whole  piece  to 
a  bright  glow  and  gradually  cool  under  a,  cover- 
ing of  fine  coal  dust.  Small  objects  should  be 
packed  in  quantities,  in  a  crucible  in  a  furnace 
or  open  fire,  under  materials  which  when  heated 
to  a  glow  give  out  carbon  to  the  iron.  They 
should  be  heated  gradually,  and  kept  at  a  bright 
heat  for  an  hour  and  allowed  to  cool  slowly.  The 
substances  recommended  to  be  added  are  cast- 
iron  turnings,  sodium  carbonate  or  raw  sugar. 
If  only  raw  sugar  is  used,  the  quantity  should  not 
be  too  small.  By  this  process  it  is  said  that  cast 
(iron  may  be  made  so  soft  that  it  can  almost  be 
cut  with  a  pocket-knife. 

To  Harden  Files.  To  harden  files  dip  the  file 
in  redhot  lead,  handle  up.  This  gives  a  uniform 
heat  and  prevents  warping.  Run  the  file  endwise 
back  and  forth  in  a  pan  of  salt  water.  ,  Set  the 
file  in  a  vise  and  straighten  it  while  still  warm. 

Leather  Belts.  A  leather  belt  is  more  econo- 
mical in  the  end  than  a  rubber  one.  Wheni  buy- 
ing a  leather  belt  it  should  be  tested  by  doubling 
it  up  with  the  hair  side  out.  If  it  should  crack, 
reject  it  as  it  cannot  realize  the  whole  amount  of 
power  it  should  transmit.  If  it  shows  a  spongy 
appearance  it  should  be  condemned  at  once,  for 
it  must  be  pliable  as  well  as,  firm.  The  grain  or 
hair  side  should'  be  free  from  wrinkles  and  the 


USEFUL   KINKS  217 

belt  should  be  of  uniform  thickness  throughout 
its  length.  It  should  be  tested  for  quality  by  im- 
mersing a  small  strip  in  strong  vinegar.  If  the 
leather  has  been  properly  tanned  and  is  of  good 
quality,  it  will  remain  in  vinegar  for  weeks  with- 
out alteration,  excepting  it  will  grow  darker  in 
color.  If  the  leather  has  not  been  properly  tanned 
the  fiber  will  swell  and  the  leather  will  become 
softened,  turning  it  into  a  jelly-like  mass. 

To  Cement  Rubber  to  Leather.  Koughen  both 
surfaces  with  a  sharp-  piece  of  glass,  apply  on  both 
a  diluted  solution  of  gutta  percha  in  carbon  bi- 
sulphide, and  let  the  solution  soak  into  the  mate- 
rial. Then  press  upon  each  surface  a  skin  of  gutta 
percha  about  one-hundredth  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness, between  a  pair  of  rolls.  Unite  the  two/  sur- 
faces in  a  press  that  should  be  warm  but  not  hot. 
In  case  a  press  cannot  be  used,  dissolve  30  parts 
of  rubber  in  140  parts  of  carbon  bisulphide,  the 
vessel  being  placed  on  a  water  bath  of  a  tempera,- 
ture  of  86  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Melt  ten  parts  of 
rubber  with  fifteen  parts  of  rosin  and  add  35 
parts  of  oil  of  turpentine.  When  the  rubber  has 
been  completely  dissolved,  the  two  liquids  may 
be  mixed.  The  resulting  cement  must  be  kept 
well  corked. 

Drilling  Holes  in  Glass.  Holes  of  any  size  de- 
sired may  be  drilled  in  glass  by  the  following 
method:  Get  a  small  3-cornered  file  and  grind 
the  points  from  one  corner  and  the  bias  from 


218  USEFUL   KINKS 

the  other  and  set  the  file  in  a,  brace,  such  as  is 
used  in  boring  wood.  Lay  the  glass  in  which 
the  holes  are  to  be  bored  on  a  smooth  surface 
covered  with  a  blanket  and  begia  to  bore  a,  hole. 
When  a,  slight  impression  is  made  on  the 
glass,  place  a  disk  of  putty  around  it  and  fill 
with  turpentine  to  prevent  too  great  heating  by 
friction.  Continue  boring  the  hole,  which  will 
be  as  smooth  as  one  drilled  in  wood  with  an 
auger.  Do  not  press  too  hard  on  the  brace  while 
drilling. 

To  Polish  Brass,  Smooth  the  brass  with  a  fine 
file  and  run  it  with  smooth  fine  grain  stone,  or 
with  charcoal  and  water.  When  quite  smooth 
and  free  from  scratches,  polish  with  pumice  stone 
and  oil,  spirits  of  turpentine,  or  alcohol. 

How  to  Make  a  Soft  Alloy.  A  soft  alloy  which 
will  adhere  tenaciously  to  metal,  glass  or  porce- 
lain, and  can  also  be  used  as  a  solder  for  articles 
which  cannot  bear  a  high  degree  of  heat,  is  made 
as  follows: 

Obtain  copper-dust  by  precipitating  copper 
from  the  sulphate  by  means  of  metallic  zinc. 
Place  from  20  to  36  parts  of  the  copper-dust,  ac- 
cording to  the  hardness  desired,  in  a  porcelain- 
lined  mortar,  and  mix  well  with  some  sulphuric 
acid  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.85.  Add  to  this  paste 
70  parts  of  mercury,  stirring  constantly,  and  when 
thoroughly  mixed,  rinse  the  amalgam  in  warm 
water  to  remove  the  acid.  Let  cool  from  10  to 


USEFUL    KINKS  219 

12  hours,  after  which  time  it  will  be  hard  enough 
to  scratch  tin. 

When  ready  to  use  it,  heat  to  707  degrees  Fah- 
renheit and  knead  in  an  iron  mortar  till  plastic. 
Jt  can  then  be  spread  on  any  surface,  and  when 
it  lias  cooled  and  hardened  will  adhere  most  ten- 
aciously. 


MEDICAL  AID. 

Things  to  Do  in  Case  of  Sprains  or  Dislocations. 

The  most  important  thing  is  to  secure  rest  until 
(the  arrival  of  the  surgeon.  If  the  sprain  is  in  the 
ankle  or  foot,  pla,ce  a  folded  towel  around  the 
part  and  cover  with  a  bandage.  Apply  moist 
heat.  The  foot  should  be  immersed  in  a  bucket 
of  hot  water  and  more  hot  water  added  from  time 
to  time,  so  that  it  can  be  kept  as  hot  as  can  be 
borne  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  after  which 
a  firm  bandage  should  be  aplied,  by  a  surgeon,  if 
possible,  and  the  foot  elevated. 

In  sprains  of  the  wrist,  a,  straight  piece  of  wood 
should  be  used  as  a  splint,  cover  with  cotton  or 
wool  to  make  it  soft,  and  lightly  bandage,  and 
carry  the  arm  in  a)  sling.  In  all  cases  of  sprains 
the  results  may  be  serious,  and  a  surgeon  should 
be  obtained  as  soon  as  possible.  After  the  acute 
symptoms  of  pain  and  swelling  have  subsided,  it 
is  still  necessary  that  the  joint  should  have  com- 
plete rest  by  the  use  of  a  splint  and  bandage  and 
such  applications  as  the  surgeon  may  direct. 

Simple  dislocation  of  the  fingers  can  be  put  in 
place  by  strong  pulling,  aided  by  a  little  pressure 
on  the  part  of  the  bones  nearest  the  joint. 

The  best  that  can  be  done  in  mo&t  cases  is  to 
220 


MEDICAL   AID  221 

put  the  part  in  the  position  easiest  to  the  sufferer, 
and  to  apply  cold  wet  cloths,  while  awaiting  the 
arrival  of  a  surgeon. 

To  Remove  Foreign  Substances  from  the  Eye. 
Take  hold  of  the  upper  lid  and  turn  it  up  so  that 
the  inside  of  the  upper  lid  may  be  seen.  Have  the 
patient  make  several  movements  with  the  eye, 
first. up,  then  down,  to  the  right  side  and  to  the 
left.  Then  take  a  tooth-pick  with  a  little  piece 
of  absorbent  cotton  wound  around  the  end  and 
moistened  in  cold!  water,  and  swab  it  out.  ,  The 
foreign  substance  will  adhere  to  the  swab  and 
the  object  will  be  removed  from  the  eye  without 
any  trouble. 

In  Case  of  Cuts.  The  chief  points  to  be  attend- 
ed to  are:  Arrest  the  bleeding.  Eemove  from  the 
wound  all  foreign  substances  as  soon  as  possible. 
Bring  the  wounded  parts  opposite  to  each  other 
and  keep  them  so.  This  is  best  done  by  means  of 
strips  of  surgeon's  plaster,  first  applied  to  one 
side  of  the  wound  and  then  secured  to  the  other. 
These  strips  should  not  be  too  broad,  and  space 
must  be  left  between  the  strips  to  allow  any  mat- 
ter to  escape.  Wounds  too-  extensive  to  be  held 
together  by  plaster  must  be  stitched  by  a  surgeon, 
who  should  always  be  sent  for  in  severe  cases. 

Broken  Limbs.  To  get  at  a  broken  limb  or  rib, 
the  clothing  must  be  removed,  and  it  is  essential 
that  this  should  be  done  without  injury  to  the 
patient.  The  simplest  plan  is  to  rip  up  the  seams 


222  MEDICAL   AID 

of  such  garments  as  are  in  the  way.  Shoes  must 
always  be  cut}  off.  It  is  not  imperatively  necess- 
ary to  do  anything  to  a  broken  limb  before  the 
arrival  of  a  doctor,  except  to  keep  it  perfectly  at 
rest. 

Wounds.  If  a  wound  be  discovered  in  a  part 
covered  by  the  clothing,  cut  the  clothing  at  the 
seams.  Remove  only  sufficient  clothing  to  un- 
cover and  inspect  the  wound. 

All  wounds  should  be  covered  and  dressed  as 
quickly  as  possible.  If  a  severe  bleeding  should 
occur,  see  that  this  is  stopped,  if  possible,  before 
the  wound  is  dressed. 

Treatment  of  Burns.  In  treating  burns  of  a 
serious  nature,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  after  the 
fire  is  extinguished  should  be  to  remove  the  cloth- 
ing. The  greatest  care  must  be  exercised,  as  any- 
thing like  pulling  will  bring  the  skin  away.  If 
the  clothing  is  not  thoroughly  wet,  be  sure  to 
saturate  it  with  water  or  oil  before  attempting  to 
remove  it. 

If  portions  of  the  clothing  will  not  drop  off, 
allow  them  to  remain.  Then  make  a  thick  solu- 
tion of  common  baking  soda  and  water,  and  dip 
soft  cloths  in  it  and  lay  them  over  the  injured 
parts,  and  bandage  them  lightly  to  keep  them 
in  position.  Have  the  solution  near  by,  and  the 
instant  any  part  of  a  cloth  shows  signs  of  dry- 
ness,  squeeze  some  of  the  solution  on  thair  part. 
Do  not  remove  the  cloth,  as  total  exclusion  of  the 


MEDICAL   AID  223 

air  is  necessary,  and  little,  if  any,  pain,  will  be 
felt  as  long  as  the  cloths  are  kept  saturated.  This 
may  be  kept  up  for  several  days,  after  which  soft 
cloths  dipped  in  oil  may  be  applied,  and1  covered 
with  cotton  batting.  If  the  feet  are  cold,  apply 
heat  and  give  hot  water  to  drink,  and  if  the  burns 
are  very  serious  send  for  a  doctor  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible. The  presence  of  pain  is  a  good  sign,  show- 
ing that  vitality  is  present. 

Bleeding.  In  case  of  bleeding,  the  person  may 
become  weak  and  faint,  unless  the  blood  is  flow- 
ing actively.  This  is  not  a  serious  sign,  and  the 
quiet  condition  of  the  faint  often  assists  nature  in 
stopping  the  bleeding,  by  allowing  the  blood  to 
clot  and  so  block  up  any  wound  in  a  blood  vessel. 

Unless  the  faint  is  prolonged  or  the  patient  is 
posing  much  blood,  it  is  better  not  to  relieve  the 
faint  condition,  When  in  this  state  excitement 
should  be  avoided,  and  external  warmth  should 
be  applied,  the  person  covered  with  blankets,  and 
bottles  of  hot  water  or  hot  bricks  applied  to  the 
feet  and  arm-pits. 

Watch  carefully  if  unconscious. 

If  vomiting  occurs,  turn  the  patient's  body  on 
one  side,  with  the  head  low,  so  that  the  matters 
vomited  may  not  go  into  the  lungs. 

Bleeding  is  of  three  kinds:  From  the  arteries 
which  lead  from  the  heart.  That  which  comes 
from  the  veins  which  take  the  blood]  back  to  the 
heart.  That  from  the  small  veins  which  carry 


224  MEDICAL   AID 

the  blood  to  the  surface  of  the  body.  In  the  first, 
the  blood  is  bright  scarlet  and  escapes  as  though 
It  were  being  pumped,  in  the  second,  the  blood 
is  dark  red  and  flows  away  in  an  uninterrupted 
stream.  In  the  third,  the  blood  oozes  out.  In 
some  wounds  all  three  kinds  of  bleeding  occur  at 
the  same  time. 

Carrying  an  Injured  Person.  In  case  of  an  in- 
jury where  walking  is  impossible,  and  lying  down 
is  not  absolutely  necessary,  the  injured  person 
may  be  seated  in  a  chair,  and  carried,  or  he  may 
sit  upon  a  board,  the  ends  of  which  are  carried 
by  two  men,  around  whose  necks  they  should 
place  his  arms  so  as  to  steady  himself. 

Where  an  injured  person  can  walk  he  will  get 
much  help  by  putting  his  arms  over  the  shoulders 
and  round  the1  neeks  of  two  others. 


TABLES 


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TABLES 


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Length  of  Pipe  p 
Square  Foot  of 


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TABLES 


229 


n  1 

H  QQ 

GQ  ^_ 

§  1 


•^ootf  aad 


ength  of  Pipe  pe 
Square  Foot  of 


•aoBjang 


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230 


TABLES 


TABLE  GIVING  VELOCITY  OF  FLOW  OF  WATER 

In  Feet  per  Minute,  Through  Pipes  of  Various  Sizes,  for 

Varying  Quantities  of  Flow. 

Gallons 
per  Minute 

3-4 
inch. 

1  inch. 

1  1-4 
inch. 

1  1-2 
inch. 

2  inch. 

2  1-2 
inch. 

3  inch. 

4  inch. 

5 

218 

122i 

78£ 

54i 

301 

191 

13% 

7% 

10 

436 

245 

157 

109 

61 

38 

27 

15% 

15 

653 

367£ 

235i 

163i 

911 

581 

40% 

23 

20 

872 

490 

314 

218 

122 

78 

54 

30% 

25 

1090 

612£ 

392£ 

272^ 

1521 

971 

67% 

38% 

30 

735 

451 

327 

183 

117 

81 

46 

35 

857^ 

549i 

38H 

2131 

1361 

94% 

53% 

40 

980 

628 

436 

244 

156 

108 

61% 

45 

1102^ 

7061 

490£ 

2741 

1751 

121% 

69 

50 

785 

545 

305 

195 

135 

76% 

75 

1177i 

8171 

457* 

2921 

202% 

115 

100 

1090 

610 

380 

270 

153% 

125 

7621 

4871 

337% 

191% 

150 

915 

585 

405 

230 

175 

10671 

682| 

472% 

268% 

200 

1220 

780 

540 

306% 

TABLE  GIVING  Loss  IN  PRESSURE 

Due  to  Friction,  in  Pounds,  per  Square  Inch,  for  Pipe 

100  Feet  Long. 

Gallons 
Discharged 
per  Minute. 

3-4 
inch. 

1  inch, 

1  1-4 
inch. 

1  1-2 
inch. 

2  inch. 

2  1-2 
inch. 

3  inch. 

4  inch. 

5 

3.3 

0.84 

0.31 

0.12 

10 

13.0 

3.16 

1.05 

0.47 

0.12 

15 

28.7 

6.98 

2.38 

0.97 

0.27 

0.06 

20 

50.4 

12.3 

4.07 

1.66 

0.42 

0.13 

0.03 

25 

78.0 

19.0 

6.40 

2.62 

0.67 

0.21 

0.10 

30 

27.5 

9.15 

3.75 

0.91 

0.30 

0.12 

0.03 

35 

37.0 

12.4 

5.05 

1.26 

0.42 

0.14 

0.05 

40 

48.0 

16.1 

6.52 

1.60 

0.51 

0.17 

0.06 

45 

20.2 

8.15 

2.01 

0.62 

0.27 

0.07 

50 

24.9 

10.0 

2.44 

0.81 

0.35 

0.09 

75 

56.1 

22.4 

5.32 

1.80 

0.74 

0.21 

100 

39.0 

9.46 

3.20 

1.31 

0.33 

125 

14.9 

4.89 

1.99 

0.51 

150 

21.2 

7.0 

2.88 

0.69 

175 

28.1 

9.46 

3.85 

0.95 

200 

37.5 

12.47 

5.02 

1.22 

TABLES 


231 


TENSILE  STRENGTH 

OF  BOLTS. 

Diameter 
of  Bolt 
in  inches. 

Area  at 
Bottom 
of 
Thread. 

At  7,000  Ibs. 
per  square 
Inch. 

At  10,000 
Ibs.  per 
square 
inch. 

At  12,000 
Ibs.  per 
square 
inch. 

At  15,000 
Ibs.  per 
square 
inch. 

At  20,000 
Ibs.  per 
square 
inch. 

% 

.125 

875 

1,250 

1,500 

1,875 

2,500 

% 

.196 

1,372 

1,960 

2,350 

2,940 

3,920 

% 

.3 

2,100 

3,000 

3,600 

4,500 

6,000 

% 

.42 

2,940 

4,200 

5,040 

6,300 

8,400 

1 

.55 

3,850 

5,500 

6,600 

8,250 

11,000 

1% 

.69 

4,830 

6,900 

8,280 

10,350 

13,800 

M 

.78 

5,460 

7,800 

9,300 

11,700 

15,600 

\% 

1.06 

7,420 

10,600 

12,720 

15,900 

21,200 

1% 

1.28 

8,960 

12,800 

15,360 

19,200 

25,600 

\% 

1.53 

10,710 

15,300 

18,360 

22,950 

30,600 

1% 

1.76 

12,320 

17,600 

21,120 

26,400 

35,200 

IX 

2.03 

14,210 

20,300 

24,360 

30,450 

40,600 

2 

2.3 

16,100 

23,000 

27,600 

34,500 

46,000 

2^ 

3.12 

21,840 

31,200 

37,440 

46,800 

62,400 

2% 

3.7 

25,900 

37,000 

44,400 

55,500 

74,000 

The  breaking  strength  of  good  American  bolt  iron  is  usually 
taken  at  50,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  with  an  elongation  of 
15  per  cent  before  breaking.  It  should  not  set  under  a  strain 
of  less  than  25,000  pounds.  The  proof  strain  is  20,000  pounds 
per  square  inch,  and  beyond  this  amount  iron  should  never 
be  strained  in  practice. 


232 


TABLES 


TABLE  OF  THE  PROPERTIES  OF  SATURATED  STEAM. 

Gauge 
pres- 
sure in 
Ibs.  per 
sq.  in. 

Temper- 
ature in 
degrees 
F. 

Total 
heat 
units 
from 
water  at 
32"  p. 

Heat 
units  in 
liquid 
from  32° 
F. 

Heat  of 
vaporiza- 
tion in 
heat 
units. 

Density 
of  weight 
of  leu.  ft. 
in  Ibs. 

Volume 
of  1  Ib.  in 
cubic  feet 

Weight 
of  1  cu. 

ft.  of 
water. 

0 

212.00 

1146.6 

180.8 

965.8 

0.03760 

26.60 

59.76 

59.64 

10 

239.36 

1154.9 

208.4 

946.5 

0.06128 

16.32 

59.04 

20 

258.68 

1160.8 

227.9 

932.9 

0.08439 

11.85 

58.50 

30 

273.87 

1165.5 

243.2 

922.3 

0.1070 

9.347 

58.07 

40 

286.54 

1169.3 

255.9 

913.4 

0.1292 

7.736 

57.69 

50 

297.46 

1172.6 

266.9 

905.7 

0.1512 

6.612 

57.32 

55 

302.42 

1174.2 

271.9 

902.3 

0.1621 

6.169 

57.22 

60 

307.10 

1175.6 

276.6 

899.0 

0.1729 

5.784 

57.08 

65 

311.54 

1176.9 

281.1 

895.8 

0.1837 

5.443 

56.95 

70 

31577 

1178.2 

285.6 

892.7 

0.1945 

5.142 

56.82 

75 

319.80 

1179.5 

289.8 

889.8 

0.2052 

4.873 

56.69 

80 

323.66 

1180.6 

293.8 

886.9 

0.2159 

4.633 

56.59 

85 

327.36 

1181.8 

297.7 

884.2 

0.2265 

4.415 

56.47 

90 

330.92 

1182.8 

301.5 

881.5 

0.2371 

4.218 

56.36 

95 

334.35 

1183.9 

305.0 

879.0 

0.2477 

4.037 

56.25 

100 

337.66 

1184.9 

308.5 

876.5 

0.2583 

3.872 

56.18 

105 

340.86 

1185.9 

311.8 

874.1 

0.2689 

3.720 

56.07 

110 

343.95 

1186.8 

315.0 

871.8 

0.2794 

3.580 

55.97 

115 

346.94 

1187.7 

318.2 

869.6 

0.2898 

3.452 

55.87 

120 

849.85 

1188.6 

321.2 

867.4 

0.3003 

3.330 

55.77 

125 

352.68 

1189.5 

324.2 

865.3 

0.3107 

3.219 

55.69 

130 

355.43 

1190.3 

327.0 

863.3 

0.3212 

3.113 

55.58 

135 

358.10 

1191.1 

329.8 

861.3 

0.3315 

3.017 

55.52 

140 

360.70 

1191.9 

332.5 

859.4 

0.3420 

2.924 

55.44 

145 

363.25 

1192.8 

335.2 

857.5 

0.3524 

2.838 

55.36 

150 

365.73 

1193.5 

337.8 

855.7 

0.3629 

2.756 

55.29 

155 

368.62 

1194.3 

340.3 

853.9 

0.3731 

2.681 

55.22 

160 

370.51 

1195.0 

342.8 

852.1 

O.K835 

2.608 

55.15 

165 

372.83 

1195.7 

345.2 

850.4 

0.15939 

2.539 

55.07 

170 

375.09 

1196.3 

3476 

848.7 

0.4043 

2.474 

54.99 

175 

377.31 

1197.0 

349.9 

847.1 

0.4147 

2.412 

54.93 

180 

379.48 

1197.7 

352.2 

845.4 

0.4251 

2.353 

54.86 

185 

381.60 

1198.3 

354.4 

843.9 

0.4353 

2.297 

54.79 

190 

383.70 

1199.0 

356.6 

842.3 

0.4455 

2.244 

54.73 

195 

385.75 

1199.6 

358.8 

840.8 

0.4559 

2.193 

54.66 

200 

387.76 

1200.2 

360.9 

839.2 

0.4663 

2.145 

54.60 

225 

397.36 

1203.1 

370.9 

832.2 

0.5179 

1.930 

54.27 

250 

406.07 

1205.8 

380.1 

825.7 

0.5699 

1.755 

54.03 

275 

414.22 

1208.3 

388.5 

819.8 

0.621 

1.609 

53.77 

300 

421.83 

1210.6 

396.5 

814.1 

0.674 

1.483 

53.54 

TABLES 


233 


CHIMNEYS. 

Area 

1 

HEIGHTS    IN    FEET. 

Square 

s" 

75 

80 

85 

90 

95 

100 

110 

120 

130 

140 

150 

175 

200 

Feet. 

5 

COMMERCIAL    HORSE-POWER. 

3.14 

24 

75 

78 

81 

3.69 

26 

90 

92 

95 

98 

4.28 

28 

106 

110 

114 

117 

120 

4.91 

30 

122 

127 

130 

133 

137 

5.59 

32 

144 

149 

152 

156 

164 

6.31 

34 

162 

168 

171 

176 

185 

7.07 

36 

188 

192 

198 

208 

215 

8.73 

40 

237 

244 

257 

267 

279 

10.56 

44 

287 

296 

310 

322 

337 

12.57 

48 

352 

370 

384 

400 

413 

15.90 

54 

445 

468 

484 

507 

526 

19.63 

60 

577 

600 

627 

650 

672 

23.76 

66 

697 

725 

758 

784 

815 

28.27 

72 

862 

902 

931 

969 

1044 

38.48 

84 

1173 

1229 

1270 

1319 

1422 

50.27 

96 

1584 

1660 

1725 

1859 

1983 

68.62 

108 

2058 

2102 

2181 

2352 

2511 

78.54 

120 

2596 

2693 

2904 

3100 

REDUCTION  OF  CHIMNEY  DRAFT  BY  LONG  FLUES. 

Total  Length   of 
Flues,  in  feet. 

50 

100 

200 

400 

600 

800 

1000 

2000 
35 

Chimney  Draft,  in 
per  cent. 

100 

93 

79 

66 

58 

52 

48 

234 


TABLES 


AREA  OP  CIRCLES. 

Diana. 

Area. 

Diam. 

Area. 

Diam. 

Area. 

Diam. 

Area. 

1A 

0.0123 

10 

78.54 

30 

706.86 

65 

3318.3 

% 

0.0491 

10J^ 

86.59 

31 

754.76 

66 

3421.2 

0.1104 

11 

95.03 

32 

804.24 

67 

3525.6 

% 

0.1963 

UK 

103.86 

33 

855.30 

68 

3631.6 

ft 

0.3068 

12 

113.09 

34 

907.92 

69 

3739.2 

X 

0.4418 

12tf 

122.71 

35 

962.11 

70 

3848.4 

H 

0.6013 

13 

132.73 

36 

1017.8 

71 

3959.2 

i 

0.7854 

18tf 

143.13 

37 

1075.2 

72 

4071.5 

iX 

0.9940 

14 

153.93 

38 

1134.1 

73 

4185.4 

IX 

1.227 

14# 

165.13 

39 

1194.5 

74 

4300.8 

l# 

1.484 

15 

176.71 

40 

1256.6 

75 

4417.8 

i# 

1.767 

16# 

188.69 

41 

1320.2 

76 

45364 

i# 

2.073 

16 

201.06 

42 

1385.4 

77 

4656.6 

l# 

2.405 

16tf 

213.82 

43 

1452.2 

78 

4778.3 

ijtf 

2.761 

17 

226.98 

44 

1520.5 

79 

4901.6 

2 

3.141 

17tf 

240.52 

45 

1590.4 

80 

5026.5 

2# 

3.976 

18 

254.46 

46 

1661.9 

81 

5153.0 

2^ 

4.908 

18tf 

268.80 

47 

1734.9 

82 

5281.0 

2# 

5.939 

19 

283.52 

48 

1809.5 

83 

5410.6 

3 

7.068 

1»# 

298.64 

49 

1885.7 

84 

5541.7 

3^ 

8.295 

20 

314.16 

50 

1963.5 

85 

5674.5 

3^ 

9.621 

20^ 

330.06 

51 

2042.8 

86 

5808.8 

8* 

11.044 

21 

346.36 

52 

2123.7 

87 

5944.6 

4 

12.566 

21  # 

363.05 

53 

2206.1 

88 

6082.1 

4X 

15.904 

22 

380.13 

54 

2290.2 

89 

6221.1 

5 

19.635 

22^ 

397.60 

55 

2375.8 

90 

6361.7 

s# 

23.758 

23 

415.47 

56 

2463.0 

91 

6503.9 

6 

28.274 

23^ 

433.73 

57 

2551.7 

92 

6647.6 

6X 

33.183 

24 

452.39 

58 

2642.0 

93 

6792.9 

7 

38.484 

24^ 

471.43 

59 

2733.9 

94 

6939.8 

W* 

44.178 

25 

490.87 

60 

2827.4 

95 

7088.2 

8 

50.265 

26 

530.93 

61 

2922.4 

96 

7238.2 

8^ 

56.745 

27 

572.55 

62 

3019.0 

97 

7389.8 

9 

63.617 

28 

615.75 

63 

3117.2 

98 

7542.9 

9X 

70.882 

29 

660.52 

64 

.3216.9 

99 

7697.7 

To  compute  the  area  of  a  diameter  greater  than  any  in  the 
above  table: 

RULE. — Divide  the  dimension  by  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  if  practicable, 
until  it  is  reduced  to  a  quotient  to  be  found  in  the  tatle, 
then  multiply  the  tabular  area  of  the  quotient  by  the  square 
of  the  factor.  The  product  will  be  the  area  required. 

EXAMPLE.— What  is  area  of  diameter  of  150?  150  -*-  5  =  30. 
Tabular  area  of  30  =  706.86  which  X  25  =  17,671.5  area  required. 


TABLES 


CIRCUMFERENCE  OF  CIRCLES. 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Diam. 

Circum. 

% 

.3927 

10 

31.41 

30 

94.24 

65 

204  2 

X 

.7854 

10^ 

32.98 

31 

97.38 

66 

207^8 

y* 

1.178 

11 

34.55 

32 

100.5 

67 

210.4 

% 

1.570 

Htf 

36.12 

33 

103.6 

68 

213.6 

& 

1.963 

12 

37.69 

34 

106.8 

69 

216.7 

% 

2.356 

12^ 

39.27 

35 

109.9 

70 

219.9 

H 

2.748 

13 

40.84 

36 

113.0 

71 

223.0 

3.141 

13^ 

42.41 

37 

116.2 

72 

226.1 

M 

3.534 

14 

43.98 

38 

119.3 

73 

229.3 

i* 

3.927 

14tf 

45.55 

39 

122.5 

74 

232.4 

1M 

4.319 

15 

47.12 

40 

125.6 

75 

235.6 

IX 

4.712 

16tf 

48.69 

41 

128.8 

76 

238.7 

IH 

5.105 

16 

50.26 

42 

131.9 

77 

241.9 

1% 

5.497 

16tf 

51.83 

43 

135.0 

78 

245.0 

1% 

5.890 

17 

53.40 

44 

138.2 

79 

248.1 

2 

6.283 

17tf 

54.97 

45 

141.3 

80 

251.3 

2% 

7.068 

18 

56.54 

46 

144.5 

81 

254.4 

2^ 

7.854 

18tf 

58.11 

47 

147.6 

82 

257.6 

2% 

8.639 

19 

59.69 

48 

150.7 

83 

260.7 

3 

9.424 

19tf 

61.26 

49 

153.9 

84 

263.8 

3X 

10.21 

20 

62.83 

50 

157.0 

85 

267.0 

3^ 

10.99 

20>£ 

64.40 

.51 

160.2 

86 

270.1 

3^ 

11.78 

21 

65.97 

52 

163.3 

87 

273.3 

4 

12.56 

21^ 

67.54 

53 

166.5 

88 

276.4 

4K 

14.13 

22 

69.11 

54 

169.6 

89 

279.6 

5 

15,70 

22^ 

70.68 

55 

172.7 

90 

282.7 

5K 

17.27 

23 

72.25 

56 

175.9 

91 

285.8 

6 

18.84 

23^ 

73.82 

57 

179.0 

92 

289.0 

6X 

20.42 

24 

75.39 

58 

182.2 

93 

292.1 

7 

21.99 

24^ 

76.96 

59 

185.3 

94 

295.3 

ilA 

23.56 

25 

78.54 

60 

188.4 

95 

298.4 

8 

25.13 

26 

81.68 

61 

191.6 

96 

301.5 

8^ 

26.70 

27 

84.82 

62 

194.7 

97 

304.7 

9 

28.27 

28 

87.96 

63 

197.9 

98 

307.8 

9K 

29.84 

29 

91.10 

64 

201.0 

99 

311.0 

.  To  compute  the  circumference  of  a  diameter  greater  than 
any  in  the  above  table: 

RULE. — Divide  the  dimension  by  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  if  practicable, 
until  it  is  reduced  to  a  diameter  to  be  found  in  table.  Take 
the  tabular  circumference  of  this  diameter,  multiply  it  by  2, 
3,  4,  etc.,  according  as  it  was  divided,  and  the  product  will  be 
the  circumference  required. 

EXAMPLE. — What  is  the  circumference  of  a  diameter  of  125? 
125  -*-  5  =  25.  Tabular  circumference  of  25  =  78.54,  78.54  X 
5  =*  392.7,  circumference  required. 


236 


TABLES 


PROPERTIES  OF  METALS. 

Melting  Point. 

Weight 

Weight 

Tensile 

in  Lbs. 

in  Lbs. 

Strength  in 

Degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

per  Cubic 
Foot. 

per  Cubic 
Inch. 

Pounds  per 
Square  Inch. 

Aluminum 

1140 

166.5 

.0963 

15000-30000 

Antimony 

810-1000 

421.6 

.2439 

1050 

Brass  (average) 

1500-1700 

523.2 

.3027 

30000-45000 

Copper 

1930 

552. 

.3195 

30000-40000 

Gold  (pure) 

2100 

1200.9 

.6949 

20380 

Iron,  cast 

1900-2200 

450. 

.2604 

20000-35000 

Iron,  wrought 

2700-2830 

480. 

.2779 

35000-60000 

Lead 

618 

709.7 

.4106 

1000-3000 

Mercury 

39 

846.8 

.4900 

Nickel 

2800 

548.7 

.3175 

Silver  (pure) 

1800 

655.1 

.3791 

40000 

Steel 

2370-2685 

489.6 

.2834 

50000-120000 

Tin 

475 

458.3 

.2652 

5000 

Zinc 

780 

436.5 

.2526 

3500 

NOTE. — The  wide  variations  in  the  tensile  strength  are  due 
to  the  different  forms  and  qualities  of  the  metal  tested.  In 
the  case  of  lead,  the  lowest  strength  is  for  lead  cast  in  a  mould, 
the  highest  for  wire  drawn  after  numerous  workings  of  the 
metal.  With  steel  it  varies  with  the  percentage  of  carbon 
used,  which  is  varied  according  to  the  grade  of  steel  required. 
Mercury  becomes  solid  at  39  degrees  below  zero. 


TABLES 


237 


DECIMAL  PARTS  OF  AN  INCH. 

1-64 

.01563 

11-32 

.34375 

43-64 

.67188 

1-32 

.03125 

23-64 

.35938 

11-16 

.6875 

3-64 

.04688 

3-8 

.375 

1-16 

.0625 

45-64 

.70313 

25-64 

.39063 

23-32 

.71875 

5-64 

.07813 

13-32 

.40625 

47-64 

.73438 

3-32 

.09375 

27-64 

.42188 

3-4 

.75 

7-64 

.10938 

7-16 

.4375 

1-3 

.125 

49-64 

.76563 

29-64 

.45313 

25-32 

.78125 

9-64 

.14063 

15-32 

.46875 

51-64 

.79688 

5-32 

.15625 

31-64 

.48438 

13-16 

.8125 

11-64 

.17188 

1-2 

.5 

3-16 

.1875 

53-64 

.82813 

33-64 

.51563 

27-32 

.84375 

13-64 

.20313 

17-32 

.53125 

55-64 

.85938 

7-32 

.21875 

35-64 

.54688 

7-8 

.875 

15-64 

.23438 

9-16 

.5625 

1-4 

.25 

57-64 

.89063 

37-64 

.57813 

29-32 

.90625 

17-64 

.26563 

19-32 

.59375 

59-64 

.92188 

9-32 

.28125 

39-64 

.60938 

15-16 

.9375 

19-64 

.29688 

5-8 

.625 

5-16 

.3125 

61-64 

.95313 

41-64 

.64063 

31-32 

.96875 

21-64 

.32813 

21-32 

.65625 

63-64 

.97438 

MELTING  POINTS  OF  ALLOYS  OF  TIN,  LEAD,  AND  BISMUTH. 

Melting 

Melting 

Point  in 

Point  in 

Tin. 

Lead. 

Bismuth.  Degrees 

Tin. 

Lead. 

Bismuth.   Degrees 

Fahren- 

Fahren- 

heit 

heit, 

2 

3 

5          199 

4 

1 

372 

1 

1 

4          201 

5 

1 

381 

3 

2 

5          212 

2 

1 

385 

4 

1 

5          246 

3 

1           392 

1 

1          286 

1 

1 

466 

2 

1          334 

1 

3 

552 

3 

1 

367 

238 


TABLES 


MELTING,  BOILING  AND  FREEZING  POINTS  IN 

DEGREES 

FAHRENHEIT  OF  VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES. 

Substance. 

Melts  at 
Degrees 

Substance. 

Melts  at 
Degrees 

Platinum 

3080 

Antimony 

810 

Wrought-Iron 

2830 

Zinc 

780 

Nickel 

2800 

Lead 

618 

Steel 

2600 

Bismuth 

476 

Cast-Iron 

2200 

Tin 

475 

Gold  (pure) 

2100 

Cadmium 

442 

Copper 

1930 

Sulphur 

226 

Gun  Metal 

1960 

Bees-Wax 

151 

Brass 

1900 

Spermaceti 

142 

Silver  (pure) 

1800 

Tallow 

72 

Aluminum 

1140 

Mercury 

39 

Substance. 

Boils  at 
Degrees 

Substance. 

Freezes  at 
Degrees 

Mercury 

660 

Olive  Oil 

36 

Linseed  Oil 

600 

Fresh  Water 

32 

Sulphuric  Acid 

590 

Vinegar 

28 

Oil  of  Turpentine 

560 

Sea  Water 

27X 

Nitric  Acid 

242 

Turpentine 

14 

Sea  Water 

213 

Sulphuric  Acid 

1 

Fresh  Water 

212 

VACUUM  SYSTEM  OP  STEAM  HEATING. 

The  application  of  vacuum  to  steam  heating 
ordinarily  involves  the  employment  of  a  vacuum 
pump  located  at,  or  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
lowest  point  in  the  return  pipe  system  in  which 
a  partial  vacuum  is  to  be  maintained  in  order  to 
assist  in  steam  circulation.  With  such  a  system 
properly  designed,  which  means  with  the  return 
lines  graded  so  that  the  condensation  flows  natur- 
ally back  to  the  vacuum  pump,  and  with  efficient 
apparatus  installed  at  the  proper  points,  the 
pump  can  be  of  relatively  small  size  as  it  has  little 
to  do  beside  partially  exhausting  the  air  from  the 
piping  and  radiators  so  as  to  establish  a  lower 
pressure  on  the  return  side  of  the  system.  This 
removal  of  air  once  accomplished,  the  pump  has 
only  to  handle  the  condensation  and  entrained 
air;  the  steam  condensing  in  the  radiation  pro- 
duces the  necessary  vacuum  to  induce  a  further 
supply  of  steam  to  the  heating  units.  It  is  only 
when  the  physical  conditions  of  the  building  to  be 
heated  make  it  necessary  to  have  drainage  points 
below  the  level  of  the  suction  inlet  of  the  pump 
that  it  is  required  to  "lift"  the  condensation  or 
return  water,  but,  since  the  steam  used  to  actuate 

239 


246  VACUUM  SYSTEM 

the  pump  is  afterwards  used  for  heating,  with  its 
value  impaired  only  a  few  per  cent,  the  pump  be- 
comes a  very  efficient  power  unit. 

Introduction  and  Advantages.— The  introduc- 
tion of  a  vacuum  system  of  steam  heating  into  a 
building  involves  either  the  installation  of  a  com- 
plete plant  including  the  vacuum  pump  in  the 
building,  or,  on  the  other  hand  the  steam  required 
for  heating  may  be  obtained  from  a  nearby  central 
heating  station  conducted  on  the  vacuum  system 
which  is  done  in  a  large  number  of  instances.  The 
principal  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  in- 
stallation of  the  vacuum  system  are : 

(1)  The  circulation  of  steam  through  the  pipes, 
radiators  and  heating  coils  is  quick,  positive  and 
uniform. 

(2)  There  is  no  " water  hammer "  in  the  piping 
of  a  properly  installed  vacuum  heating  system. 
This  is  due  to  the  continuous  relief  of  air  and  the 
positive  removal  of  the  products  of  condensation. 

(3)  The  absence  of  air  valves  on  the  radiators. 

(4)  The  ability  during  mild  weather,  when  the 
demands  for  heating  are  slight,  to  distribute  a 
relatively  small  volume  throughout  the  system  as 
needed,  with  a  pressure  at,  or  even  slightly  below 
that  of  the  atmosphere. 

(5)  In  mills  and  factories  operated  by  power 
from  non-condensing  steam  engines  or  steam  tur- 
bines, exhaust  steam  can  be  used  for  heating,  due 
to  the  partial  elimination  of  back  pressure.  This 


VACUUM  SYSTEM  241 

either  saves  directly  in  fuel  consumption  or  en- 
ables the  engine  to  do  more  work  at  the  same  ex- 
penditure of  fuel.  Back  pressure  upon  compound 
engines  and  turbines  adds  to  their  steam  consump- 
tion approximately  2.5  to  3  per  cent  per  pound  of 
back  pressure,  while  with  simple  reciprocating  en- 
gines the  increased  steam  consumption  due  to  back 
pressure  is  1.5  to  2.5  per  cent  under  favorable  con- 
ditions and  often  much  more,  depending  upon 
conditions. 

Heating  Medium. — The  first  subject  for  consid- 
eration in  designing  a  vacuum  system  of  heating 
is  the  character  of  the  heating  medium,  whether 
exhaust  or  live  steam,  or  a  combination  of  both. 

If  exhaust  steam  from  engines  or  auxiliaries  is 
to  be  utilized,  as  it  should  be  whenever  possible, 
proper  provision  must  be  made  to  remove  the  en- 
trained oil  and  cylinder  condensate.  For  this  pur- 
pose various  methods  are  employed  including  the 
loop  seal.  A  successful  device  is  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 104.  The  apparatus  consists  of  an  oil  sep- 
arator%connected  into  the  supply  pipe,  and  drained 
into  a  grease  trap  placed  about  six  feet  below  the 
separator. 

Pressure-Reducing  Valve. — A  pressure-reduc- 
ing valve  is  essential  to  secure  the  success  of  the 
system.  Such  a  valve  is  designed  to  automatically 
admit  live  steam  at  reduced  pressure  into  the  sup- 
ply mains  at  times  when  the  amount  of  exhaust 
steam  is  insufficient.  This  valve  should  be  espec- 


242  VACUUM  SYSTEM 

ially  adapted  to  vacuum  system  service,  which 
means  that  the  diaphragm  should  be  of  ample  area 
to  secure  sensitive  operation.  In  the  case  of 
boiler  pressures  above  125  pounds  it  is  the  best 


Fig.  104. — Typical  method  of  draining  Webster  Oil  Separator  through  a 
Webster  Grease  Trap. 

practice  to  "step  down"  the  pressure  through  two 
reducing  valves  rather  than  to  make  a  full  reduc- 
tion with  a  single  valve.  By  this  method  more 
accurate  regulation  is  secured. 

Radiation. — Before  the  supply  and  return  pip- 
ing can  be  properly  sized  and  arranged,  the 
amount  of  heat  loss  should  be  carefully  calculated 
for  the  various  rooms  and  compartments.  For 


VACUUM  SYSTEM 


243 


this  purpose  the  rules  and  tables  given  elsewhere 
in  this  book  will  be  found  entirely  reliable  and  sat- 
isfactory and  apply  to  any  heating  system.  The 
rate  of  condensation  varies  not  only  with  the  type 
of  radiation,  but  with  its  location  and  use. 

Ordinary  cast-iron  loop  radiators  such  as  are 
shown  on  pages  46  to  50  are  most  frequently  used, 
except  in  factories,  large  ware  rooms,  etc.,  where 


Pig.  105. — Radiator  Connections — steam  type  with  bottom  connected 
ippiy 
Valve. 


supply  valve.     Hot  water  type  with  top  connected  Webster  Modulation 


cast-iron  wall  radiators  or  ordinary  pipe  coils  may 
be  better  adapted.  When  the  riser  connections 
are  above  the  floor  line  the  radiators  should  be 
placed  so  as  to  secure  proper  grading  of  supply 
and  return  run-outs  from  radiators  to  risers.  This 
may  be  accomplished  as  shown  in  Figure  105. 

Radiator  Tappings. — The  tables  here  presented 
are  furnished  by  Warren  Webster  &  Co.  and  apply 
to  vacuum  system  only. 


244 


VACUUM  SYSTEM 


The  Webster  modulation  valve  referred  to  in 
the  table  of  radiator  tappings  and  also  shown  at 
the  top  in  Figure  105,  is  a  device  especially 
adapted  to  vacuum  heating  systems,  and  will  be 
described  and  illustrated  later  on. 

Its  function  is  to  regulate  the  supply  of  steam  as 
needed. 

CAST  IRON  EADIATOR  TAPPINGS. 
Table  of  Sizes. 


Square  feet  of  direct 
radiating        surface 
condensing  normally 
not  to  exceed  ^4  lb. 
per  square  foot  per 
hour. 

Normal  Maxi- 
mum    pounds 
of      condensa- 
tion per  hour. 

Supply      tap- 
)  in  g     with 
Webster 
Modul  a  t  i  o  n 
valve      a  t  - 
tached. 

Pipe    size    of 
return 
tapping. 

1  to     25 
26  to     50 
51  to  100 
101  to  175 
176  and  over 

7 
13 
25 
44 
75 

%  in. 
%  in. 
%  in. 
%  in.  to  1  in. 
1  in. 

%  in. 
%  in. 
%  in. 
%  in. 
%  in. 

PIPE  COIL  TAPPINGS. 
Table  of  Sizes. 


Square  feet  of  direct 
radiating       surface 
condensing  normally 
not  to  exceed  %  lb. 
per  square  foot  per 
hour. 

Normal   maxi- 
mum     pounds 
of      condensa- 
tion per  hour. 

Pipe  size  of 
supply 
tapping. 

Pipe  size  of 
return 
tapping. 

42 
84 
146 
250 

528 
924 

13 

25 

44 
75 
158 

277 

%  in. 
1      in. 
1%  in. 
1%  in. 
2      in. 
2V2  in. 

%  in. 
y2  in. 
%  in. 
%  in. 
%  in. 
1       in. 

VACUUM  SYSTEM 


245 


When  the  radiators  are  located  so  that  a  higher 
condensation  rate  will  be  secured,  the  sizes  of  the 
tappings  should  be  based  upon  the  condensation 
rate  and  not  upon  the  size  of  the  radiator. 

Direct-indirect  radiators  will  condense  at  least 
33  per  cent  more  than  direct  radiators.  The  con- 
densation rate  of  wall  radiators  is  approximately 
0.3  Ib.  per  square  foot  of  radiating  surface. 


Fig.  106. — When  the  "harp"  coil 
has  but  a  few  pipes,  a  simple  sup- 
ply connection,  as  shown,  should 
be  made. 


Fig.  107. — Proper  method  of 
making  supply  connections  to 
"harp"  coil  of  large  size  to  insure 
supply  of  steam  to  each  pipe  in  the 
coil. 


Run- Outs. — When  horizontal  supply  run-outs 
above  floor  level  from  risers  to  radiators  are  more 
than  four  feet  in  length,  they  should  be  at  least 
one  size  larger  than  the  radiator  supply  trappings 
given  in  the  tables.  In  buildings  where  it  is  neces- 
sary to  lay  supply  run-outs  for  some  distance, 
practically  level  under  finished  floors,  these  run- 
outs must  be  of  such  size  that  the  velocity  of  steam 


246 


VACUUM  SYSTEM 


in  the  direction  opposite  to  the  flow  of  condensa- 
tion will  not  prevent  the  latter  from  flowing  back 
to  the  main.  It  is  good  practice  to  make  the  re- 
turn run-outs  from  radiators  to  risers  not  smaller 
than  %-inch,  even  when  the  radiator  return  tap- 
ping-is %-inch,  as  the  larger  pipe  is  not  so  liable 
to  become  distorted,  sagged  or  clogged. 

Pipe  Coil  Connections. — Figures  106  and  107 
show  proper  methods  of  making  supply  connec- 
tions to  harp  coils.  Figure  108  shows  the  supply 
connection  to  a  manifold  coil. 




>• 

'  

. 

p 

ft 

s 

I                             I 

K 

£ 

8 

2 

Fig.  108. — Supply  connections  to  manifold  coil. 

Arrangement  of  Supply  Piping.— There  are  two 
general  methods  in  use,  the  up-feed  arid  down- 
feed  systems.  The  most  common  arrangement  is 
the  up-feed  system  of  risers,  locating  the  supply 
mains  in  the  basement. 

Where  conditions  require  that  the  main  be  run 
centrally  with  lateral  branches  of  considerable 


VACUUM  SYSTEM 


247 


length  it  is  customary  to  drip  these  branches  at 
the  base  of  each  riser.  The  removal  of  condensa- 
tion at  these  points  is  accomplished  either 
through  individual  traps  discharging  into  the 
vacuum  return  line  as  shown  in  Figures  109  and 


Vacuum 
Return 
A  Main 


Dirt 
Pocket 


SYLPHON 
TRAP 

Pig.  109. — Method  of  dripping  supply  risers  through  Webster  Sylphon 
Trap  into  vacuum  return  line. 

109a,  or  by  combining  these  drips  into  a  separate 
drip  line  from  which  the  condensation  is  dis- 
charged into  the  vacuum  return  line  through  a 
heavy  duty  water  line  trap  as  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 110. 


248 


VACUUM  SYSTEM 


Down-Peed  System.— It  is  frequently  better  en- 
gineering practice  to  use  the  down-feed  system, 
especially  in  high  buildings  when  the  main  exhaust 
pipe  leads  to  the  roof.  This  pipe  may  be  used  as 
the  main  supply  riser,  and  in  such  case  the  back 
pressure  valve  is  located  at  or  near  the  top  of  the 
main  riser,  below  which  a  branch  is  taken  off  to 
feed  a  system  of  distributing  mains  to  supply  the 
down-feed  risers  as  shown  in  Figure  111. 


DIRT  STRAINER 

DRIP  TRAP 

Fig.  109a. — Webster  Dirt  Strainer  and  Trap. 

These  risers  may  be  dripped  through  individual 
traps,  or  the  drips  may  be  combined  into  a  sepa- 
rate drip  line  and  discharged  through  a  heavy  duty 
trap  into  the  vacuum  return  line. 

Vacuum  Return  Lines. — The  location  and  ar- 
rangement of  return  piping  is  the  same  whether 


VACUUM  SYSTEM 


249' 


the  up-feed  or  down-feed  system  of  supply  is  used. 
There  should  always  be  a  slight  downward  pitch 
in  the  direction  of  the  flow  of  condensation. 

The  size  of  vacuum  return  piping  is  affected  by 
the  amount  of  vapor  to  be  handled. 

In  gravity  heating  systems  the  returns  are 
filled  with  steam,  while  in  vacuum  systems  with 
efficient  traps  they  are  not  so  filled. 

Assuming  the  supply  piping  to  be  correctly  pro- 
portioned, a  safely  approximate  rule  is  to  make 

Main 

Up-feed 

Supply 

Riser 


DIRT"      HEAVY  DUTY 
STRAINER    /TRAP 


Fig.  110. — Dripping  the  Main  Up-Feed  Supply  Riser. 

the  diameter  of  the  horizontal  return  line  not  less 
than  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  corresponding 
supply  line  for  supply  lines  of  4-inch  and  under, 
while  for  larger  supplies  the  proportion  may  be 
reduced  until  with  a  12-inch  supply  line  for  ex- 
ample, a  4-inch  return  (1/3  supply)  would  be 
ample.  In  no  case  should  a  horizontal  return  pipe 
less  than  %-inch  in  size  be  used  for  more  than 


250 


VACUUM  SYSTEM 


one  radiator.  "Lifts"  in  return  lines  should  be 
avoided  when  it  is  possible  to  arrange  for  gravity 
flow  to  the  vacuum  pump.  When  a  lift  of  6  feet  or 
over  cannot  be  avoided  it  should  be  divided  into 
"steps"  rather  than  make  the  total  lift  in  one 
rise. 


OH 


5*-, 


O^ 


Fig.   111. — The   Down-Feed    System   of  Piping. 

Exhausting  Apparatus. — The  highest  authori- 
ties recommend  the  installation  of  two  vacuum 
pumps,  each  of  ample  capacity  for  the  entire 
plant,  so  that  either  pump  may  be  cleaned  and 
repaired  while  the  other  is  in  operation. 

Modulation  Valve. — Mention  has  already  been 
made  of  this  valve,  a  sectional  view  of  which  is 


VACUUM  SYSTEM  251 


Fig.  112. — Webster  Type  N  Modulation  Valve,  sectional  view. 


Fig.    113. — Webster   Wa-ter-Seal   Trap. 


252 


VACUUM  SYSTEM 


shown  in  Fig.  112.  Its  proper  location  in  the  steam 
supply  leading  to  a  radiator  is  shown  in  Fig.  105. 
In  Figure  114  is  shown  a  sectional  view  of  the 
Webster  sylphon  trap  which  operates  on  the  well- 
known  thennostatic  principle,  using  a  sylphon 
bellows  constructed  of  seamless  brass  folds  the 
contraction  or  expansion  of  which  serves  to  open 
or  close  the  valve  shown  at  the  bottom. 


Fig.  114. — Webster  Sylphon  Trap. 


INDEX 

PAGE 

Air  valves  57 

Altitude  gauge  121 

Boiler  capacity 21 

Blow  torch    165 

Casings    17-S1 

Check  valves 112 

Chimney  floes   30-130 

Cleaning  gas  fixtures 171 

Gold  air 144 

Connecting  a  meter  160 

Damper  regulator 26 

Direct-indirect  radiation  43-96 

Direct  radiation    42-95 

Double  main  system .89 

Estimating   74-129 

Expansion  tank 114 

Expansion  of  wrought  iron,  steam  and  water  pipes 150 

Fire  pot    17-82 

Fire  pots  20-85 

Fittings 151-160 

Frost  in  pipes 159 

Fuel  combustion 31-131 

Furnaces 134 

Furnace  heating  133 

Gas  burners .- 174 

Gas  fitting    157 

Gas  fitting  in  work  shops 187 

Gas  proving  pump 171 

Gas  stoves  and  flues 183 

Gas  supply  pipe 158 

General  instructions 139 

Good  workmanship  145 

Grate  17-82 

Grates,  simplicity  of 18-82 

253 


254  INDEX 

PAGE 

Heat    9 

Heater  capacity 86 

Heating  surface   39-92 

Heating  systems    7 

Hot  air  pipes   143 

Hot  water  heating 77 

Hot  water  heating  plant  126 

Hot  water  mains 92 

Indirect  radiation  42-95 

Location  of  the  furnace 142 

Mantel  lamps    167 

Medical  aid 220 

One  pipe  system   33 

One  pipe  system  with  separate  return 34 

One  pipe  circuit  steam  heating  system 37 

One  pipe  overhead  system   35 

Openings  in  foundation   145 

Overhead  steam  heating  system 38 

Partition   143 

Pipe  bends    152 

Pipe  machines   154 

Pipe  systems    33-88 

Pressure  gauges 28 

Proper  size  of  chimney 142 

Proper  size  of  furnace 141 

Quadruple  main  water  heating  system 89 

Radiation    42-95 

Radiators -. 44-97 

Radiator  connections 56-93-108 

Radiator  valves   58-108 

Reading  a  meter 161 

Rectangular  sectional  boilers 19 

Rectangular  sectional  heaters 83 

Relative  advantages  of  steam  and  hot  water  heating 7 

Round  steam  boilers  14 

Round  water  heaters 78 

Safety  valves   23 

Simplicity  of  the  grates 18-82 

Single  pipe  overhead  system 90 

Smoke  pipes 29-129 

Specifications  and  contract  for  a  hot  water  heating  plant 127 


INDEX  255 

PAGE 

Specifications  and  contract  for  a  steam  heating  plant 75 

Starting  a  hot  water  heating  plant 123 

Starting  a  steam  heating  plant 66 

Steam  boilers  13 

Steam  heating 11 

Steam  heating  plant 69 

Steam  mains  41 

Steam  and  gas  fitting 150 

Street  supply  main 158 

Tables    225-238 

Thermometers    87 

Tools 154 

Two-pipe  system 37 

Unsteady  water  line  in  boiler 63 

Useful  information 192 

Useful  kinks   203 

Vacuum  system  of  steam  heating 239 

Ventilation    8 

Water  column 26 

Water  gauge  120 

Webster  system 242 

Wrought  iron  pipe 150 


INDEX  TO  TABLES 

Approximate  radiating  surface  to  cubic  capacities  to  be  heated  123 

Approximate  velocity  of  air  in  flues  of  various  heights 148 

Areas  of  chimneys 233 

Areas  of  circles  234 

Boiling  points  of  varioui  fluids 197 

Capacity  of  expansion  tanks   121 

Capacity  ef  furnaces  to  maintain  an  inside  temperature  of  70 

degrees  with  an  outside  temperature  of  0  degrees 149 

Circumferences  of  circles  '. 235 

Decimal  parts  of  an  inch 237 

Dimensions  »f  chimney  flues  for  given  amounts  of  direct  steam 

radiation 31-131 

Dimensions  and  heating  capacities  of  furnaces 145 

Lap  welded  steel,  or  charcoal  iron  boiler  tubes 225 


256  INDEX  TO  TABLES 

PAGE 

Loss  of  heat  by  transmission  with  a  difference  of  70  degrees 

Fahr.  between  the  indoor  and  outdoor  temperatures 146 

Loss  in  pressure  due  to  friction  in  pipes 230 

Melting,  boiling  and  freezing  points  of  various  substances. . .  238 

Melting  points  of  alloys  of  tin,  lead  and  bismuth 237 

Pipe  tap  for  one-  and  two-pipe  steam  radiator  connections. . .  57 

Pipe  tapping  for  hot  water  radiators   93 

Pressure  of  water  for  each  foot  in  height 196 

Proper  sizes  of  furnace  pipes  to  heat  rooms  of  various  dimen- 
sions      147 

Proper  sizes  of  hot  water  mains 93 

Proper  sizes  of  one-  and  two-pipe  steam  mains 41 

Properties  of   metals    236 

Properties  of  saturated  steam  232 

Reduction  of  chimney  draft  by  long  flues 233 

Square  feet  of  heating  surface  in : 

Four-column  steam  radiators  55 

Three-column  steam  radiators  54 

Two-column  steam  radiators  53 

Square  feet  of  heating  surface  in: 

Four-column  water  radiators    107 

Three-column  water  radiators  106 

Two-column  water  radiators 105 

Square  feet  of  surface  in  one  lineal  foot  of  pipe  of  various 

dimensions   197 

Temperature  of  steam  at  varying  pressures  in  degrees  Fahr. . .  73 

Tensile  strength  of  bolts 231 

Velocity  of  flow  of  water 230 

Wind  velocities  146 

Wrought  iron  and  steel  steam,  gas  and  water  pipe — dimen- 
sions of  , 226-227 

Wrought  iron  and  steel  extra  strong  pipe — dimensions  of ....  228 
Wrought   iron   and   steel    double   extra   strong  pipe — dimen- 
sions of 229 


DRAKE'S  MECHANICAL  BOOKS 

•Title      '  '                         |  Style  |  Price 

Carpentry  and  Building  Books 

Modern  Carpentry.    Two  volumes .  Cloth  $2.00 

Modern  Carpentry.     Vol.    I Cloth  1.00 

Modern  Carpentry.     Vol.  II Cloth  1.00 

The  Steel  Square.    Two  volumes. .  Cloth  2.00 

The  Steel  Square.    Vol.    I Cloth  1.00 

The  Steel  Square.    Vol.  II Cloth  1.00 

A.  B.  C.  of  the  Steel  Square Cloth  .50 

A    Practical    Course    in    Wooden 

Boat  and  Ship  Building *Cloth  1.50 

Common  Sense  Stair  Building  and 

Handrailing Cloth  1.00 

Modern   Estimator   and   Contrac- 
tor's Guide *Cloth  1.50 

Light  and  Heavy  Timber  Framing 

Made  Easy Cloth  2.00 

Builders*    Architectural    Drawing 

Self-taught Cloth  2.00 

Easy  Steps  to  Architecture Cloth  1.50 

Five  Orders  of  Architecture Cloth  1.50 

Builders'  and  Contractors'  Guide   Cloth  1.50 

Practical  Bungalows  and  Cottages* Cloth  1.00 

Low  Cost  American  Homes *  Cloth  1.00 

Practical  Cabinet  Maker  and  Fur- 
niture Designer Cloth  2.00 

Practical  Wood   Carving Cloth  1.50 

Home  Furniture  Making Cloth  .60 

Concretes,  Cements,  Mortars,  Plas- 
ters and  Stuecos Cloth  1.50 

Practical  Steel  Construction Cloth  .75 

Practical  Bricklaying  Self-taught.   Cloth  1.00 

Practical  Stonemasonry Cloth  1.00 

Practical  Up-to-date  Plumbing Cloth  1.50 

Hot  Water  Heating,   Steam   and 

Gas  Fitting  *Cloth  1.50 

Practical     Handbook     for     Mill- 
wrights      Cloth  2.00 

Boat  Building  for  Amateurs Cloth  1.00 


NOTE. — New  Books  and  Revised  Editions  are  marked* 


DRAKE'S  MECHANICAL   BOOKS 

*Title  |  Style  |  Price 

Painting  Books 

Art  of  Sign  Painting *Cloth  $3.00 

Scene  Painting  and  Bulletin  Art.  .* Cloth  3.00 

"A  Show  at"  Sho'Cards •  Cloth  3.00 

Strong's  Book  of  Designs ...  .*Lea.  3.00 

Signist's  Modern  Book  of  Alpha- 
bets     Cloth  1.50 

Amateur  Artist Cloth  1.00 

Modern  Painter's  Cyclopedia Cloth  1.50 

New  Stencils  and  Their  Use *Cloth  1.25 

Bed  Book  Series  of  Trade  School  Manuals — 

1.  Exterior     Painting,     Wood, 

Iron  and  Brick Cloth      .60 

2.  Interior  Painting,  Water  and 

Oil  Colors Cloth      .60 

3.  Colors    Cloth      .60 

4.  Graining  and  Marbling Cloth      .60 

5.  Carriage  Painting Cloth      .60 

6.  The  Wood  Finisher Cloth      .60 

New  Hardwood  Finishing Cloth  1.00 

Automobile  Painting *  Cloth  1.25 

Estimates,    Costs    and    Profits — 
House    Painting    and    Interior 

Decorating  *Cloth  1.00 


NOTE. — New  Books  and  Revised  Editions  are  marked* 


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*  Title  |  Style  |  Price 

Automobile  Books 

Brookes'  Automobile  Handbook ..  *Lea.     $2.00 

Automobile    Starting   and    Light- 
ing   *Lea.      1.50 

Automobile    Starting   and    Light- 
ing   *Cloth    1.00 

Ford  Motor  Car  and  Truck  and 

Tractor  Attachments *Lea.      1.50 

Ford  Motor  Car  and  Truck  and 

Tractor  Attachments "Cloth    1.00 

Automobile  Catechism  and  Repair 

Manual   *Lea.       1.25 

Practical    Gas    and    Oil    Engine 
Handbook   *Lea.       1.50 

Practical    Gas    and    Oil    Engine 

Handbook   *Cloth     1.00 

Farm  Books 

Farm  Buildings,  With  Plans  and 

Descriptions *  Cloth  $1.00 

Farm  Mechanics *Cloth     1.00 

Traction    Farming    and    Traction 

Engineering    *C-oth     1.50 

Farm  Engines  and  How  to  Run 

Them Cloth     1.00 

Shop  Practice  Books 

20th  Cent'y  Machine  Sh'p  Practice  Cloth  $2.00 

Practical  Mechanical  Drawing. . . .   Cloth     2.00 

Sheet  Metal  Workers'  Manual. .  .*Lea.       2.00 

Essential    of    Sheet    Metal    Work 

and  Pattern  Drafting *Cloth    1.50 

Oxy-Acetylene  Welding  and  Cut- 
ting   *Lea.      1.50 

Oxy-Acetylene  Welding  and  Cut- 
ting   *Cloth     1.00 

20th  Century  Toolsmith  and  Steel- 
worker    Cloth    1.50 

Pattern     Making     and     Foundry 

Practice Lea.      1.50 

Modern  Blacksmithing Cloth    1.00 

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I  Style  |  Price 


Electrical  Books 

Electrical  Tables  and  Engineering 

Data    *Lea.  $1.50 

Electrical  Tables  and  Engineering 

Data    *Cloth  1.00 

Motion  Picture  Operation *Lea.  1.50 

Motion  Picture  Operation *Cloth  1.00 

Alternating  Current Lea.  1.50 

Alternating  Current Cloth  1.00 

Wiring    Diagrams    and    Descrip- 
tions     *Lea.  1.50 

Wiring    Diagrams    and    Descrip- 
tions     *Cloth  1.00 

Armature  and  Magnet  Winding.  .*Lea.  1.50 

Armature  and  Magnet  Winding.  .* Cloth  1.00 

Modern  Electric  Illumination. ..  .*Lea.  1.50 

Modern  Electric  Illumination *Cloth  1.00 

Modern  Electrical  Construction ..  *Lea.  1.50 
Modern  Electrical  Construction.  .* Cloth  1.00 
Electricians'  Operating  and  Test- 
ing Manual *Lea.  1.50 

Electricians'  Operating  and  Test- 
ing Manual *Cloth  1.00 

Drake's  Electrical  Dictionary....  Lea.  1.50 

Drake's  Electrical  Dictionary Cloth  1.00 

Electric  Motors,  Direct  and  Alter- 
nating   *Lea.  1.50 

Electric  Motors,  Direct  and  Alter- 
nating   *Cloth  1.00 

Electrical  Measurements  and  Me- 
ter Testing Lea.  1.50 


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